TheHigh Middle Ages, or Classic Feudalism Period in what constitutes the present-day Republic ofAzerbaijan, lasted from around the 11th century to the 15th century AD. The High Middle Ages were preceded by theEarly Middle Ages and were followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended around the 15th century AD. Key historical trends of the High Middle Ages include the incorporation of the territories that constitute present-day Azerbaijan into theSeljuk Empire, the establishment of theEldiguzids, theMongol invasions and the rule of theIlkhanate, the invasions ofTimur and the establishment of theTurkomanKara Koyunlu andAq Qoyunlu tribal confederations.
In the 11th century, theSeljuk dynasty of the Oghuz Turkic origin, which emerged inCentral Asia, crossed the Araz River while marching to Gilan and then reached Arran. In 1048, the Seljuk dynasty, together with the Azerbaijani feudal lords, defeated the Christian bloc (Byzantine and Christian states of theSouth Caucasus). When the Seljuk rulerToghrul Beg came to Azerbaijan and Arran to assert his authority, Rawwadid ruler Vahsudan in 1054, and then in 1062 his son and successor Mamlan II was forced to accept the rule of Toghrul Beg inTebriz. After Rawwadid Vahsudan, Togrul Bey came toGanja andAbulasvar Shavur accepted his rule in 1054.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
After the death of Toghrul,Alp Arslan and his vizierNizam ul-Mulk visitedGanja during the reign of Fazl Muhammad II, who came to power afterAbulasvar Shavur. In return for Alp Arslan's promised expedition to theAlans, he demands 1,000 camels, 50 horses, finely decorated robes, and a mysterious “garden” (bostān) that had trees of gold and blossoms of precious stones weighing 100,000meṯqāls, however, the march does not take place because of winter.In 1075,Alp Arslan annexed the last of theShaddadid territories. A cadet branch ofShaddadids continued to rule inAni andTbilisi as vassals of the Seljuq Empire until 1175 whenMalik-Shah I deposedFadl III. In 1085, Fadl III instigated a revolt and gained possession ofGanja.Malik-Shah launched a campaign in 1086 and removed Fadl from power again. A collateral line ofShaddadids, throughManuchihr, continued to rule inAni.[8][9][2][10][11]
Referring to the work ofMinorsky, Azerbaijani historianSara Ashurbeyli states that in 1066–067, during the reign of Shah Fariborz b. Sallār (1063–1096), ruler ofShirvanshahs, Seljuk Turks headed by commander Qarategin made great marches toShamakhi andBaku, and then Shah I Fariburz accepted to be dependent on the Seljuks by paying 40,000 dinars a year.[12][3]
It is clear from the coins minted byManuchohr II (1096–1106), who came to power after Shah I, in the name of Mahmud, the Seljuk sultan of Iraq, that theShirvanshahs were dependent on the Iraqi Seljuks at that time.[4]
In 1117, Demetrius I was sent byDavid IV ofGeorgia at the head of the Georgian army toShirvan, where Demetrius took down the Agdash fortress. In 1120, David entered Shirvan and took the city ofQabala. During this time, the Shirvanshahs had a power shift between the rising Georgian and Seljuk states.[4]
During the reign of ShirvanshahIII Manuchehr (1120–1160), the Shirvanshah state gave up paying 40,000 dinars a year to the Seljuk Empire, and in return, Sultan Mahmud attacked Shirvan in 1123.
However, Sultan Mahmud retreated in front of the combined troops of the Shirvanshahs,Kipchak Turks and David IV. In 1123–1124,David IV invaded Azerbaijan and captured the fortresses of Gulustan and Bugurd, but after David's death in 1125, his army was forced to leave Shirvan. During the reign of Demeter I, there was no military conflict with the Shirvanshahs.[4]
Coins from the reign ofManuchohr III also show that the state of theShirvanshahs at that time depended on the Iraqi Seljuk sultan Malik Shah.
In 1160, after the death of Manuchehr III, Tamar joined the power struggle between her sons and tried to unite Shirvan withGeorgia with the help of Kipchak mercenaries. Manuchehr's older son,Akhsitan I (1160–1197), won the battle for the throne, forcing Tamar and his younger brother to flee toGeorgia with the support of theEldeniz dynasty.[13][14]
The absence of the sultan's name on the coins minted during the reign of his son Akhsitan I indicates that the Seljuk state was already weakened and the Shirvanshahs were independent.[15][4]
During the Seljuk rule, emirs were given "igta" lands in exchange for military service. It was one of the lands given by the sultans in Aran,Shirvan andDerbent as "igta". Various taxes were collected from the population, such as ushr (Usura),jizya and tribute taxes, as well as the expense of gun, and the expense of wine.[4]
Atabeg, Atabek, or Atabey is a heritable title of nobility of Turkic Origin indicating a governor of a nation or province, who was subordinate to a monarch and charged with raising the crown prince.It is a combination of two Turkish words – “ata”-father and “bey”-lord, leader.They were known as “Great Atabaks” (atābakān-e aʿẓam) of Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks and controlled the sultans from 1160 to 1181.[16][7]
According to Minorsky, theSultan of Iraqi Seljuks, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud, gave Seljuq province of Arran (amongst others) to Kipchak slaveShamseddin Eldeniz (Eldiguz) as iqta in 1137. Eldegiz choseBarda as his residence, and attracted the local emirs to his camp.[17][10][18][19]
The state's power base was centered aroundNakhchivan and would focus onGeorgia. It expanded to Arran and took control of fromBaylagan toShamkir. He made himself virtually independent ruler of what is the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan by 1146. His marriage to the Mumine Khatun enabled him to intervene in the dynasty dispute between the Seljuk sultans of Iraq, which began after Masud's death in 1152. Eldiguz, in alliance withAhmadili atabeg (Ahmadilis) Arslan Aba, waged war against Sultan Muhammad II and maintained this alliance until 1156.[20][16][21]
Eldeniz had married the widow of the Seljuq ruler Toghrïl II and proclaimed Great Atabeg (guardian) of his stepson, Arslanshah in 1161 and became the main protector of the Sultan's government. He obtained Arran amongst others, and turned numerous local rulers into his vassals.[22]
Eldeniz appointed his eldest son Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan as the sultan's emir-hajib and his second son Gizil Arslan as the supreme commander of the sultan's army.
In 1161, during the reign of King George, Georgian troops captured the city of Ani ruled by Shaddadids, and then attacked the city of Ganja in the territory of Arran. In 1163, Eldeniz defeated Georgian troops andShaddadids became a vassal of Eldeniz about 10 years. Campaigns against Georgians continued in 1174–1175. After the death ofShamsaddin Eldaniz inNakhchivan in 1175, his sonMuhammad Jahan Pahlavan succeeded him.[20][23]
Pahlavan transferred the capital fromNakhchivan toHamadan in western Iran and made his younger brother,Qizil Arslan Uthman, the ruler of the political entity. In 1174, Qizil Arslan capturedTabriz, which subsequently became his capital.[24][1]
Arslanshah marched toAzerbaijan (Iranian Azerbaijan) together with the emirs against the Eldaniz government, but Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan eliminated his rival and replaced him with his son Togrul III and proclaimed himself as Toghrul's atabeg.[25]
According to Ravandi, during the ten years of Atabeg Jahan Pahlavan's rule, the state was not subjected to any foreign aggression. “During his rule, Georgians made peace with him and accepted his demands”. After a while, Atabeg established friendly relations with Khwarazm Shah Tekish (1172–1200). During his reign, Caliph al-Mustadi and Caliph al-Nasir were unable to interfere in the internal affairs of the state.[26]
Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan entrusted the management of Arran to his son Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr and madeQizil Arslan his governor.[26]
After Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan's death, his brotherQizil Arslan (1186–1191) ascended the throne. He continued his successful struggle against theSeljuq rulers. At the same time, the central power began to get weaker as mamluks, who had strengthened their dominance in their areas, did not want to obey the Sultan. EvenShirvanshahAkhsitan I who used to be Atabegs’ liegeman attempted to intervene the interior affairs of the Eldiguzids and opposedQizil Arslans aspiration to the throne. In the response to this, Qizil Arslan invaded Shirvan in 1191, reached to Derbent and subordinated the whole Shirvan to his authority. In 1191Toghrul III, the last Seljuq ruler was overthrown by Qizil Arslan. Then, byKhalif’s leave, he proclaimed himself a Sultan, married Innach Khatun, his brother’s widow, and then he was poisoned by Innach Khatun in September, 1191.[22][17]
After the death of Qizil Arslan, the power was divided among Jahan Pahlavan’s sons, however, soon they started to fight for the throne. Abu Bakr came to the fortress of Alinja. The fortress, along with all the treasures, was at the disposal of Jahan Pahlavan's other widow, Zahida Khatun. Abu Bakr captures the fortress and the treasury. Qizil Arslan’s nephews began to rule independently, and one of the Mamluks of Jahan Pahlavan, Mahmud Anas Oglu, freed Toghrul III from his prison and regains the sultanate throne in May 1192. However, soon after, in 1194, after a long war with theKhwarazm Shahs, Sultan Togrul III was defeated and the existence of the Iraqi Seljuk Sultanate came to an end.[16]
After defeated by Abu Bakr, Amir Amiran Omar went to gain a support from Shirvanshah Akhsitan I and Georgian Tsarina Tamar. In 1994, the united Georgian-Shirvan and Amir Amiran Omar’s troops defeated Abu Bakr in the battles of Shamkir and Beylagan. Later, the Georgians trying to capture Ganja, temporarily occupied it, but soon Abu Bakr’s troops drove the Georgians out ofGanja. After the death of Abu Bakr, Muzaffar al-Din Uzbek came to power. He was the fifth and last ruler of theEldiguzids from 1210 to 1225. During his reign, the country was attacked by Mongols and Georgians. In 1225, Khwarazm Shah Jalal-ad-din dethroned theIldegizid Uzbek Muzaffar al-Din and set himself up in the capital ofTabriz on the 25 of July in 1225.[17][24][27][28][2]
Ajami Abubakr oglu Nakhchivani is one of the architects who lived and created in Azerbaijan during the Atabegs of Azerbaijan. Ajami, also known as “Sheikh al-Muhandis”, was the architect of the several famous architectural monumentssuch asYusif ibn Kuseyir Mausoleum,Momine Khatun Mausoleum andJuma Mosque and the founder of the Nakhichivan School of architecture. The mausoleums of Nakhichivan was nominated for theList ofWorld Heritage Sites,UNESCO in 1998.[29][30][31]
The Mausoleum ofYusif ibn Kuseyir was built in 1161–1162 and was decorated with geometric patterns of baked brick in Karabaglar village ofNakchivan city, the capital of the Atabegs state.[32][33]
Momine Khatun Mausoleum was built in the west part of Nakhchivan in 1186. Mausoleum was erected on the grave ofShams ad-Din Eldiguz’s wife Momine Khatun, and its construction was finished byMahammad Jahan Pahlavan. It is the only monumentthat has survived. There are four circular medallions on the perpendicular arrows (diameter 1.5 m) in the interior of the dome's brick rows. The ornaments made of the mix of gypsum and clay, consist of Kufi-style compositions. The essence of all the compositions is the word "Allah". Omar, Osman, Ali words intersect with each other, forming 6, 8 and 10 pointed stars and surround the word “Allah”.[34]
Gulistan Mausoleum, built of red sandstone nearJulfa. This building is 12-sided and covered with rich and intricate, but delicate geometric ornaments. The Gulustan mausoleum is one of the remarkable architectural monuments of the early 13th century, which demonstrates the genetic commonality of the tombs in Azerbaijan andAnatolia.[35]
Khagani (1120–1199), one of the poets born in the cities of Azerbaijan in the XII century, lived inShirvan, in the palace ofShirvanshahs and composed a Divan consist of qasidas. He had moved fromShamakhi toTabriz, became acquainted withQizil Arslan and composed poems appreciating the latter.[36][37]
Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209) born inGanja, wrote works dedicated to the Seljuk, Atabegs and Shirvanshah rulers. Nizami's main poetical work, for which he is best known, is a set of five long narrative poems known as theKhamsa or Panj Ganj.Makhzan-ol-Asrâr (The Treasury or Storehouse of Mysteries, 1163) was dedicated to Fakhr al-Din Bahramshah, the ruler of Erzinjan;Khosrow o Shirin (Khosrow and Shirin, 1177–1180) was dedicated to the Seljuk Sultan Toghril II, the Atabek Muhammad ibn Eldiguz Jahan Pahlavan and his brother Qizil Arslan. Nezami composed his romanceLeyli o Majnun (Layla and Majnun, 1192) at the request of the Shirvanshah Akhsatan.Eskandar-Nâmeh (The Book of Alexander, 1196–1202) was dedicated to Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, Atabegs of Azerbaijan, and Malik Izzaddin, the ruler of Mosul. Haft Peykar (The Seven Beauties 1197) was dedicated to Aladdin Korpe Arslan, the ruler of Maragha from the Ahmadilis dynasty.[38][39]
Mahsati Ganjavi, born in Ganja (1089–1159), was a composer of philosophical and love quatrains (rubaiyat), glorifying the joy of living and the fullness of love. The most complete collection of her quatrains are founded in the Nozhat al-Majales. Approximately 60 quatrains of her are found in the Nozhat al-Majales.[40]
TheMongol invasions and conquests of Azerbaijan took place during the 13th and 14th centuries and involved large-scale raids. The Mongol invasions of Azerbaijan resulted in the incorporation of the territories of Azerbaijan into the newly establishedHulagu state.[7][41][42][43][44][2]
During the first invasion of Azerbaijan by the Mongols in 1220–1223, cities such asBailagan,Barda,Ganja, which were the territory of theAtabegs of Azerbaijan, were destroyed. At that time, there was a political disintegration in the state ofAtabegs of Azerbaijan. After the defeat of the Empire of Khorezmshahs, the 20,000 Mongolian expeditionary corps led by the military commandersJebe andSubutay in the persecution of the last Khorezmshah conquered Iran and attacked the territories that nowadays comprise Azerbaijan in 1220. The Mongols invaded fromNakhichevan, driving Atabeg Uzbek from Ganja in Azerbaijan toTabriz. The Mongols, who entered the territory of Azerbaijan, spent the winter in the Mughan steppe.[45][46]
After Mongolians defeated some 10,000 Georgians commanded by KingGeorge IV "Lasha" of Georgia in the fall of 1220, they returned to Arran. They spent the winter in theMughan steppe and kept their captured treasures in the swampy area betweenBarda andBeylagan. Thinking that the Mongols would stay in Arran until the Spring, the Georgians began gathering an army, asking for help from Malik Ashraf of Akhlat and Uzbek, the Atabag of Azerbaijan. Subotai and Jebe received reinforcements fromGenghis Khan and recruited local Turkish and Kurdish forces under the command of Akush, a disloyal underling of Atabag Uzbek. Subutai and Jebe then marched towards Tbilisi. Close to Tbilisi the Mongols attacked a Georgian force. The Georgians managed to defeat Akush's Turkmen but were slaughtered by the Mongol rearguard.[47][45]
Eventually, the Mongols marched to the north, plundering the Shirvan route. In addition, Beylagan was plundered in the spring of 1221.[48] This took them through the Caucasus into Alania and the South Russian steppes where the Mongols routed the Rus’-Kipchak armies at theBattle of the Kalka River (1223).Ibn al-Athir described the Mongol invasions of Azerbaijan as follows:
The second invasion of the Mongolians to Azerbaijan is connected with the name of Chormagan Noyon- a military commander ofGenghis Khan in the 1230s. Khwarazmshah retreated toGanja. The Mongols followed him and captured Arran. Jalal ad-Din took refuge in the Mayyafarikin mountains and there in August of that year he was killed.[49][50][16][51]
Mongolians entered theMugan Plain in 1233. In 1234, they moved forward to theAraxes River towardGanja, and in 1235, they capturedGanja and burnt down the city.[52][53]
During 1244–1255,Arghun Agha was nominated as a civil governor and head of finances in the Mongol-controlled area ofKhorasan,Irak-Ajem,Azerbaijan,Shirvan,Kerman,Georgia, and that part ofHindistan.[54][55][56][57][58][51]
In 1254, the Mongols registered all men over the age of ten and insisted on paying all taxes. All artisans were forced to pay a license tax, and lakes and ponds where they fished, iron mines, and blacksmiths were taxed. They also obtained gold, silver, and precious stones from the merchants.[2]
The third invasion of territories of Azerbaijan by Mongolians is associated with the name ofHulagu khan. After his brother Möngke's accession as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of North China, however in the following year, North China was assigned toKublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering theAbbasid Caliphate. He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the campaign, who were accompanied by families and herds. According to Rašid- al-Din, it was not just a military campaign but also the mass migration of a large portion of the Mongolian people to Persia and the neighboring countries.[59]
He destroyed theNizari Ismaili state and theAbbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself Ilkhan (subordinate khan). The state established in the areas of modernIran,Azerbaijan,Turkey, and parts of modernIraq,Syria,Armenia,Georgia,Afghanistan,Turkmenistan,Pakistan, was an attempt to repair of the damage of the previous Mongol invasions.[59]
Thus, the territories of Azerbaijan became a battleground between theGolden Horde and theHulagu states.[60][61][59]
After the death of Keykhatu khan,Ghazan khan (1295–1304) began to fight withBaydu khan and captured him nearNakhchivan.
Ghazan Khan settled on the Ilkhanid throne in Karabagh in November 1295. According toRashid ad-Din, “all the court ladies (khavatin), princes, warlords (umara), pillars of power and court magnates gathered in Karabagh of Arran and without pretense and hypocrisy they agreed to the reign of the sovereign of Islam and gave that commitment”.[62]
In March/April, he nominated his brotherÖljaitü as his successor, as he had no son his own.[2]
Abu Sa'id had to face another invasion byÖzbeg in 1335 and left to face him, but died on his way inKarabakh, on night of 30 November to 1 December 1335.[2]
In consequence of which, Abu Sa'id died without an heir or an appointed successor, thus leaving the Ilkhanate vulnerable, leading to clashes of the major families, such as theChupanids, theJalayirids.[63]
After the death of Abu Sa’id, theChobanids dynasty ruled over Azerbaijan, Arrān, and parts of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and west central Persia from 1335 to 1357, until the death ofMalek Ashraf.[64][65][66][67][68]
In 1364 Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka’us, but a revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. In 1366 Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against theKara Koyunlu, defeating their leader,Bairam Khwaja, at the battle of Mush. Later, he defeated the Shirvan Shah, who had attacked Tabriz twice in the meantime.[60] According to Zayn al- Dīn Qazvīnī and Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Kā’ūs readily overpowered all of Shirvan and Darband for Shaykh Uways Jalayir, and remained a faithful servant as long as he lived. After the death of Kā’ūs, Shaykh Uways Jalayir confirmed his son, Hūshang, as the successor ofShirvanshahs.[69]
After the death of Shirvanshah Hushang in 1382, Ibrahim I was selected to be the ruler of Shirvanshahs. In 1386, Ibrahim recognizedTimur as his suzerain. Once his grandfathers were rulers ofDarband. For that reason, his successors were known as Darbandis (1382–1538). When Timur arrived to Caucasus in 1394, Ibrahim gave him gifts and riches as presents in order to maintain good relations with him. However, one of these gifts were eight slaves, which Timur did not see as enough—when he asked Ibrahim why he had only given eight slaves, Ibrahim replied: “I am myself the ninth”. This made Timur glad, who due to the kindness of Ibrahim gave him much land and promised to protect him.[12]
In the midst of Timur's absence, Sultan Ahmad had to deal with an invasion byTokhtamysh, Khan of theGolden Horde. At the end of 1385Tokhtamysh entered from Darband toShirvan and reached Tabriz. After invasion of Tabriz, Tokhtamysh's troops invadedMaragha,Marand andNakhchivan, either.
Kara Koyunlu or Qara Qoyunlu were aMuslimTurkoman monarchy that ruled over the territory comprising present-dayAzerbaijan and other parts of Caucasus from about 1375 to 1468.[70]
The Kara Koyunlu Turkomans were initially vassals of theJalairid Sultanate inBaghdad andTabriz from about 1375, when the leader of their leading tribe ruled overMosul. However, they rebelled against the Jalairids, and secured their independence from the dynasty with the conquest of Tabriz byQara Yusuf. After ending the existence of the Jalairis, they began to rule independently in Azerbaijan.[71]
Timur completed his Indian campaign and returned to Azerbaijan in 1396.Kara Yusuf, who retreated toMosul to avoid a sudden raid, was able to take shelter in the Ottomans in 1400.[72]
The hosting of Yildirim Bayezid to Kara Yusuf was one of the main reasons Timur launched a campaign against the Ottomans. Although Kara Yusuf wanted to stop the Chagatay people with a little force, he could not succeed. He was able to reachDamascus by escaping into the desert. Kara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the nâib of Damascus. Not long after, Jalairid Sultan Ahmed also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Amir Teymur, Nasir-ad-Din Faraj agreed to capture Gara Yusif and Sultan Ahmed Jalairi, and hand them over to Teymur.Sultan Ahmed Jalayir and Kara Yusuf imprisoned on the order ofNasir-ad-Din Faraj. Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Sultan Ahmed Jalayir should keep Baghdad while Qara Yusuf would haveAzerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted his sonPirbudag. When Timur died in 1405Nasir-ad-Din Faraj released them both. However, according to Faruk Sümer, they were released on the orders of rebellious wali ofDamascus - Sheykh Mahmud.[73][72][3][70][71]
Qara Yusuf, having returned from exile inEgypt and went back toAnatolia. He forced Timur's governor inVan Izzaddin Shir to submit, while capturing Altamış, another viceroy set up by Timur and sending him toBarquq. He later moved on to the territories of Azerbaijan. He defeated the Timurid Abu Bakr at theBattle of Nakhchivan on 14 October 1406 and reoccupiedTabriz. Abu Bakr and his fatherMiran Shah tried to recapture Azerbaijan, but on 20 April 1408,Qara Yusuf inflicted a decisive defeat on them at the Battle of Sardrud in whichMiran Shah was killed.[74]
In 1409 fall, Qara Yusuf entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party toShirvan, especiallyShaki, which was fruitless.Kara Koyunlu defeatedJalayirds in 1432, bringing an end to the dynasty.[75][76][77]
Further consolidating his rule, Qara Yusuf marched on Shirvan, whereShirvanshah Ibrahim, a loyal Timurid vassal was still reigning. Shirvan's former ally theKarabakh ruler Yar Ahmed Qaramanli sided withAbu Nasr Qara Yusuf, while Ibrahim joined his forces with the ruler ofShaki, Syed Ahmed Orlat and theGeorgiankingConstantine I, who marched in the head of 2,000 Georgian cavalry to support the Shirvanese allies.[78]
A major battle was fought at the village Chalagan in December 1412 and ended in a decisive defeat of the allies. Ibrahim and Constantine fell at the hands of the fierce enemy. The Georgian king, his brother, and 300 Georgian officers were beheaded by the orders ofAbu Nasr Qara Yusuf.[78]
He died on his way to battleShahrukh (who demanded his submission) on 17 November 1420. After the death of Qara Yusuf in December 1420,Shahrukh Mirza tried to take Azerbaijan from Qara Yusuf's sonQara Iskander, using the fact that none of his sons was accompanying his father. Despite defeating Iskander, twice in 1420–21 and 1429, only in the third expedition of Shahrukh Mirza in 1434–35 did theTimurids succeed, when he entrusted the government to Iskander's own brother,Jahan Shah (1436–1467) as his vassal. In 1436 he obtained the help of theTimurid rulerShah Rukh to defeat Qara Iskander and seize the throne for himself. He was also adopted byGoharshad Begum and crowned on 19 April 1438, along taking epithet "Muzaffar al-Din".[70][72]
Upon the death of the Timurid rulerShah Rukh in 1447, Jahan Shah became an independent ruler of the Kara Koyunlu, and started to use the titles ofsultan andkhan. He expanded his ruling territory to Iraq, Fars, Kerman and even Oman.[78][79]
From around 1447 Jahan Shah was involved in a struggle against theAk Koyunlu who had always been sworn enemies of the Kara Koyunlu. First of these battles happened whenAlvand Mirza rebelled and fled to Jahangir beg, chief of Ak Koyunlu. Jahan Shah demanded his rebellious nephew, but Jahangir refused to hand him over. Jahan Shah invadedErzincan and sent his commander - Rustem beg to subdue Jahangir. Hopeless Jahangir sent his motherSara Khatun to Mamluk Egypt while Jahan Shah started to support his half-brother Sheikh Hasan. While Sheikh Hasan was killed byUzun Hasan, brother of Jahangir; Jahan Shah hasted to offer peace toAk Koyunlu, in return to accept their submission. Jahangir accepted and also wed his daughter to Mirza Muhammad.[72]
Cihan Shah spent the winter of 1466 in Tabriz. The following year, he invaded Shirvan and obtained the places that reached Derbend. At that time, the lands of the Karakoyunlu State included Azerbaijan, Arran, Irâk-ı Acem, Irâk-ı Arab, Persian, Kirman and Eastern Anatolia. The Georgian king and the rulers of Shirvanshah, Gîlan and Mâzenderan also recognized his sovereignty.[78][72]
Jahan Shah set out from Tabriz with a great army on 16 May 1466, and came to the basin ofLake Van. While there, he was furious to learn that Uzun Hasan was raiding his lands with 12,000 cavalry. Meanwhile, Uzun Hasan, suspecting that Jahan Shah was planning to attack him, had carefully guarded the mountain passes. Envoys went back and forth between them, but because of Jahan Shah's heavy demands, an agreement could not be reached. Having advanced as far asMuş, Jahan Shah had to postpone his attack because of the onset of winter. As his troops began to complain, he decided to withdraw to a winter residence. Uzun Hasan caught his army by surprise and totally defeated them in a sudden attack.Mirza Yusuf and Mirza Muhammad was captured on 30 October or 11 November 1467 at theBattle of Chapakchur. Jahan Shah was killed in battle while fleeing. and with his death the great era of Kara Koyunlu history came to an end. Jahan Shah had been buried in southern part ofBlue Mosque,Tabriz. He was succeeded by his son Hasan Ali. Soon Hasan Ali was killed by Okurlu, Uzun Hassan's son.[80][3][81][82][2]
The Qara Qoyunlu state organization was based mainly on that of its predecessors,Jalayirids, and theIlkhanids. Qara Qoyunlu rulers used the titlesultan since the enthronement ofPirbudag by Qara Yusuf. Sometimes the titlebahadur appeared on the coinage. They also used the titleskhan,khagan andpadishah.[72]
As for the provincial organization, the provinces were governed byşehzade andbeys, who had smallerdivans in each of the provinces. The governance by military governors (beys) generally passed on from father to son. In the cities there were officials calleddarugha, that looked after financial and administrative affairs, and also had political powers.[72]
Palace of the Shirvanshahs is a historical 15th-century palace built by theShirvanshahs and described by UNESCO as "one of the pearls of Azerbaijan's architecture". It is located in the Inner City ofBaku. The complex contains the main building of the palace (the 1420s), Divankhana (the 1450s), the burial-vaults – (1435), the shah's mosque with a minaret (1441), Seyid Yahya Bakuvi's mausoleum (the 1450s) and the remnants of the Keyguba mosque. It is the biggest monument of the Shirvan-Apsheron branch of the Azerbaijani architecture. Shirvanshah's palace mausoleum is a part ofPalace of the Shirvanshahs complex. The mausoleum is one of the three buildings located in courtyard of the complex, the others beingShirvanshah's palace mosque andShirvanshah's palace bath house.[83][84][85]
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