Heavy crude oil (orextra heavy crude oil) is highly viscousoil that cannot easily flow from production wells under normal reservoir conditions.[1] It is referred to as "heavy" because itsdensity or specific gravity is higher than that oflight crude oil. Heavy crude oil has been defined as any liquid petroleum with anAPI gravity less than 20°.[2]Physical properties that differ between heavy crude oils and lighter grades include higherviscosity and specific gravity, as well as highermolecular weighthydrocarbon composition. In 2010, theWorld Energy Council (WEC) defined extra heavy oil as crude oil having a gravity of less than 10° and a reservoir viscosity of more than 10,000centipoises.[3] When reservoir viscosity measurements are not available, extra heavy oil is considered by the WEC to have a lower limit of 4° API;[4] in other words, oil with a density greater than 1000 kg/m3 (or a specific gravity greater than 1) and a reservoir viscosity of more than 10,000 centipoises.[3][5] Heavy oils andasphalt aredense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs). They have a lowsolubility and a viscosity greater than, and density higher than, water.[6] Large spills of DNAPL will quickly penetrate the full depth of a water body and accumulate at the bottom.[7]
According to theWorld Resources Institute, concentrations of remarkable quantities of heavy oil and oil sands are found in Canada and Venezuela.[2][8] The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported in 2001 that the largest reserves of heavy crude oil in the world were located north of theOrinoco River, in the 270-mile long by 40-mile wideOrinoco Belt in easternVenezuela. At that time Venezuela began authorizing "joint ventures to upgrade the extra-heavy crude resources."[9]Petroleos de Venezuela, S.A. at that time estimated that there were 270 billion barrels of recoverable reserves in the area,[9] the same amount as the conventionaloil reserves of Saudi Arabia.[10] The Orinoco Belt is sometimes described as oil sands, but these deposits are non-bituminous, falling instead into the category of heavy or extra-heavy oil due to their lower viscosity.[11]Thirty or more countries are known to have reserves.
Production of heavy oil is becoming more common in many countries, with 2008 production led by Canada and Venezuela.[12] Methods for extraction include coldheavy oil production with sand,steam-assisted gravity drainage,steam injection,vapor extraction,toe-to-heel air injection, andopen-pit mining for extremely sandy and oil-rich deposits.
Production, transportation, and refining of heavy crude oil present special challenges compared to light crude oil. Generally, adiluent is added at regular distances in a pipeline carrying heavy crude to facilitate its flow.Dilbit (diluted bitumen) is a means of transporting highly viscous hydrocarbons. Per the Alberta Oil Sands Bitumen Valuation Methodology, "Dilbit Blends" means "Blends made from heavy crudes and/or bitumens and a diluent usuallycondensate, for the purpose of meeting pipeline viscosity and density specifications, where the density of the diluent included in the blend is less than 800 kg/m3."[13][14]
With current production and transportation methods, heavy crudes have more severe environmental impacts than light ones. With more difficult production comes the employment of a variety ofenhanced oil recovery techniques, including steam flooding and tighter well spacing, often as close as one well per acre. Heavy crude oils also carry contaminants. For example, Orinoco extra heavy oil contains 4.5%sulfur as well asvanadium andnickel.[15] However, because crude oil isrefined before use, generating specific alkanes viacracking andfractional distillation, this comparison is not valid in a practical sense. Heavy crude refining techniques may require more energy input[citation needed] though, so its environmental impact is presently more significant than that of lighter crude if the intended final products are light hydrocarbons (gasoline motor fuels). On the other hand, heavy crude is a better source for road asphalt mixes than light crude.[citation needed]
With present technology, the extraction and refining of heavy oils and oil sands generates as much as three times the total CO2 emissions when compared with conventional oil,[16] primarily driven by the extra energy consumption of the extraction process (which may include burning natural gas to heat and pressurize the reservoir to stimulate flow). Current research into better production methods seek to reduce this environmental impact.[citation needed]
In a 2009 report, the National Toxics Network, citing data provided by theCarbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center of the government of the United States and theCanadian Association of Petroleum Producers, stated that emissions of CO2 per unit of energy produced were ~84% of those for coal (0.078/0.093) - higher than CO2 emissions of conventional oil.[17]
Environmental Research Web has reported that "because of the energy needed for extraction and processing, petroleum from Canadian oil sands has higher life cycle emission" compared with conventional fossil fuels; "up to 25% more."[18]
Heavy crude oils provide an interesting situation for the economics of petroleum development. The resources of heavy oil in the world are more than twice those of conventional light crude oil. In October 2009, theUnited States Geological Survey updated the Orinoco deposits recoverable value to 513 billion barrels (8.16×1010 m3),[19] making this area one of the world's largest recoverable oil deposits. However, recovery rates for heavy oil are often limited from 5-30% of oil in place. The chemical makeup is often the defining variable in recovery rates. New technology utilized for the recovery of heavy oil is constantly increasing recovery rates.[20]
On one hand, due to increasedrefining costs and high sulfur content for some sources, heavy crudes are often priced at a discount to lighter ones. The increased viscosity and density also makes production more difficult (seereservoir engineering). On the other hand, large quantities of heavy crudes have been discovered in the Americas, including Canada, Venezuela and California. The relatively shallow depth of heavy oil fields[12]—often less than 3,000 ft (910 m)—can contribute to lower production costs; however, these are offset by the difficulties of production and transport that renderconventional production methods ineffective.[12] Specialized techniques are being developed for exploration and production of heavy oil.
Heavy oil can be found in shallow, young reservoirs, with rocks from thePleistocene,Pliocene, andMiocene[12] (younger than 25 million years). In some cases, it can also be found in olderCretaceous,Mississippian, andDevonian reservoirs.
Heavy oil is asphaltic and containsasphaltenes andresins. Its density and viscosity are the result of the high ratio ofaromatics andnaphthenes to linearalkanes and high levels of NSOs (nitrogen,sulfur,oxygen andheavy metals). Heavy oil has a higher percentage of compounds with over 60 carbon atoms and hence a high boiling point and molecular weight. For example, the viscosity of Orinoco extra-heavy crude oil lies in the range 1,000 to 5,000cP (1 to 5Pa·s), while Canadian extra-heavy crude has a viscosity in the range 5000 to 10,000 cP (5 to 10 Pa·s), about the same as molasses, and higher (up to 100,000 cP or 100 Pa·s for the most viscous commercially exploitable deposits).[2]A definition from theChevron Phillips Chemical company is as follows:
The "heaviness" of heavy oil is primarily the result of a relatively high proportion of a mixed bag of complex, high molecular weight, non-paraffinic compounds and a low proportion of volatile, low molecular weight compounds. Heavy oils typically containvery little paraffin and may or may not contain high levels of asphaltenes.[21]
Heavy crude oils are generally categorized in two ways[citation needed]:
Heavy crude oil is closely related to naturalbitumen fromoil sands.Petroleum geologists categorize bitumen from oil sands as extra heavy oil because its density is less than 10° API.[22] Bitumen is the heaviest, thickest form of petroleum.[23] According to the U.S. Geological Survey, bitumen is further distinguished as extra heavy oil with a higherviscosity (i.e., resistance to flow): "Natural bitumen, also called tar sands or oil sands, shares the attributes of heavy oil but is yet more dense and viscous. Natural bitumen is oil having a viscosity greater than 10,000centipoises."[22] Natural bitumen and heavy oil differ from light oils by their high viscosity at reservoir temperatures, high density (low API gravity), and significant contents of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur compounds and heavy-metal contaminants. They resemble the residuum from the refining of light oil. Most heavy oil is found at the margins of geologic basins and is thought to be the residue of formerly light oil that has lost its light-molecular-weight components through degradation by bacteria, water-washing, and evaporation. Conventional heavy oil and bitumens differ in the degree by which they have been degraded from the original crude oil by bacteria and erosion.[24] Often, bitumen is more viscous than cold molasses and does not flow atambient conditions.[23] Natural bitumen and extra-heavy oil differ in the degree by which they have been degraded from the original conventional oils by bacteria.
