Friulian (/friˈuːliən/free-OO-lee-ən) orFriulan (endonym:furlan[fuɾˈlaŋ]ⓘ;Italian:friulano;Austrian German:Furlanisch;Slovene:furlanščina) is aRomance language belonging to theRhaeto-Romance family. Friulian is spoken in the historical region ofFriuli (nowadays 90% ofFriuli-Venezia Giulia region and a little part ofVeneto region) in the northeastern part ofItaly and has around 600,000 speakers, the vast majority of whom also speakItalian. It is sometimes calledEastern Ladin since it shares the same roots asLadin, but over the centuries, it has diverged under the influence of surrounding languages, includingGerman,Italian,Venetian, andSlovene. Documents in Friulian are attested from the 11th century and poetry and literature date as far back as 1300. By the 20th century, there was a revival of interest in the language.
A question that causes many debates is the influence of the Latin spoken inAquileia and surrounding areas. Some claim that it had peculiar features that later passed into Friulian. Epigraphs and inscriptions from that period show some variants if compared to the standard Latin language, but most of them are common to other areas of the Roman Empire. Often, it is cited thatFortunatianus, the bishop ofAquileiac. 342–357 AD, wrote a commentary to theGospel insermo rusticus (the common/rustic language), which, therefore, would have been quite divergent from the standardLatin of administration.[2] The text itself did not survive so its language cannot be examined, but its attested existence testifies to a shift of languages while, for example, other important communities of Northern Italy were still speaking Latin. The languages spoken before the arrival of the Romans in 181 BC wereRhaetic,Venetic andCeltic.[3][4][5][6] The inhabitants belonged to theRaeti, a likelypre-Indo-European language population, theItalicVeneti, and theCarni, a Celtic population.[7][8] In modern Friulian, the words of Rhaetic, Venetic or Celtic origin include terms referring to mountains, woods, plants, or animals, as well as localtoponyms andonomastics (e.g. names of villages with-acco,-icco).[5][9][10] Even influences from theLombardic language—Friuli was one oftheir strongholds—are present. In a similar manner, there is a unique connection to the modern, nearbyLombard language.
In Friulian, there is also a plethora of words ofGerman,Slovenian andVenetian origin. From that evidence, scholars today agree that the formation of new Friulian dates back to c. 500 AD, at the same time as other dialects derived from Latin (seeVulgar Latin). The first written records of new Friulian have been found in administrative acts of the 13th century, but the documents became more frequent in the following century, when literary works also emerged (Frammenti letterari for example). The main centre at that time wasCividale. The Friulian language has never acquired primary official status: legal statutes were first written in Latin, then in Venetian and finally in Italian.
The idea of unity amongLadin,Romansh and Friulian comes from the Italianhistorical linguistGraziadio Isaia Ascoli, who was born inGorizia. In 1871, he presented his theory that these three languages are part of one family, which in the past stretched fromSwitzerland toMuggia and perhaps alsoIstria. The three languages are the only survivors of this family and all developed differently. Friulian was much less influenced byGerman. The scholar Francescato claimed subsequently that until the 14th century, theVenetian language shared many phonetic features with Friulian and Ladin and so he thought that Friulian was a much moreconservative language. Many features that Ascoli thought were peculiar to the Rhaeto-Romance languages can, in fact, be found in other languages of NorthernItaly.
Today, Friulian is spoken in theprovince of Udine, including the area of the CarniaAlps, but as well throughout theprovince of Pordenone, in half of the province ofGorizia, and in the eastern part of theprovince of Venice. In the past, the language borders were wider since inTrieste andMuggia, local variants of Friulian were spoken. The main document about the dialect of Trieste, ortergestino, is "Dialoghi piacevoli in dialetto vernacolo triestino", published by G. Mainati in 1828.
This sectionis missing information about Examples and english translation of 13th and 14th century texts. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on thetalk page.(May 2018)
The first texts in Friulian date back to the 13th century and are mainly commercial or juridical acts. The examples show that Friulian was used together with Latin, which was still the administrative language. The main examples of literature that have survived (much from this period has beenlost) are poems from the 14th century and are usually dedicated to the theme of love and are probably inspired by the Italian poetic movementDolce Stil Novo. The most notable work isPiruç myò doç inculurit (which means "My pear, all colored"); it was composed by an anonymous author from Cividale del Friuli, probably in 1380.
Original text
Version in modern Friulian
Piruç myò doç inculurit
quant yò chi viot, dut stoi ardit
Piruç gno dolç incolorît
cuant che jo ti viôt, dut o stoi ardît
There are few differences in the first two rows, which demonstrates that there has not been a great evolution in the language except for several words which are no longer used (for example,dum(n) lo, a word which means "child"). A modern Friulian speaker can understand these texts with only little difficulty.
The second important period for Friulian literature is the 16th century. The main author of this period wasErmes di Colorêt, who composed over 200 poems.
Note that, in the standard language, a phonemic distinction exists between true palatal stops[cɟ] and palatoalveolar affricates[tʃdʒ]. The former (written⟨cj gj⟩) originate from Latin⟨c g⟩ before⟨a⟩, whereas the latter (written⟨c/ç z⟩, where⟨c⟩ is found before⟨e⟩ and⟨i⟩, and⟨ç⟩ is found elsewhere) originate primarily from Latin⟨c g⟩ before⟨e⟩ and⟨i⟩. The palatalization of Latin⟨c⟩ and⟨g⟩ before⟨a⟩ is characteristic of theRhaeto-Romance languages and is also found inFrench and someOccitan varieties. In some Friulian dialects (e.g. Western dialects), corresponding to Central[cɟtʃdʒ] are found[tʃdʒsz]. Note in addition that, due to various sound changes, these sounds are all now phonemic; note, for example, the minimal paircjoc "drunk" vs.çoc "log".
Long vowels are typical of the Friulian language and greatly influence the Friulian pronunciation of Italian.
Friulian distinguishes between short and long vowels: in the followingminimal pairs (long vowels are marked in the official orthography with acircumflex accent):
lat (milk)
lât (gone)
fis (fixed, dense)
fîs (sons)
lus (luxury)
lûs (light n.)
Friulian dialects differ in their treatment of long vowels. In certain dialects, some of the long vowels are actually diphthongs. The following chart shows how six words (sêt thirst,pît foot,fîl "wire",pôc (a) little,fûc fire,mûr "wall") are pronounced in four dialects. Each dialect uses a unique pattern of diphthongs (yellow) and monophthongs (blue) for the long vowels:
Latin origin
West
Codroipo
Carnia
Central
sêt "thirst"
SITIM
[seit]
[seːt]
[seit]
[seːt]
pît "foot"
PEDEM
[peit]
[peit]
[piːt]
[piːt]
fîl "wire"
FĪLUM
[fiːl]
[fiːl]
[fiːl]
[fiːl]
pôc "a little"
PAUCUM
[pouk]
[poːk]
[pouk]
[poːk]
fûc "fire"
FOCUM
[fouk]
[fouk]
[fuːk]
[fuːk]
mûr "wall"
MŪRUM
[muːr]
[muːr]
[muːr]
[muːr]
Note that the vowelsî andû in the standard language (based on the Central dialects) correspond to two different sounds in the Western dialects (including Codroipo). These sounds are not distributed randomly but correspond to different origins: Latin shortE in an open syllable produces Western[ei] but Central[iː], whereas Latin longĪ produces[iː] in both dialects. Similarly, Latin shortO in an open syllable produces Western[ou] but Central[uː], whereas Latin longŪ produces[uː] in both dialects. The wordmûr, for example, means both "wall" (LatinMŪRUM) and "(he, she, it) dies" (Vulgar Latin *MORIT from LatinMORITUR); both words are pronounced[muːr] in Central dialects, but respectively[muːr] and[mour] in Western dialects.
Long consonants (ll, rr, and so on), frequently used in Italian, are usually absent in Friulian.
Friulian long vowels originate primarily from vowel lengthening in stressedopen syllables when the following vowel was lost.[13] Friulian vowel length has no relation to vowel length in Classical Latin. For example, Latinvalet yieldsvâl "it is worth" with a long vowel, but Latinvallem yieldsval "valley" with a short vowel. Long vowels aren't found when the following vowel is preserved, e.g.:
before final -e < Latin-a, cf. shortgnove "new (fem. sg.)" < Latinnova vs. longgnûf "new (masc. sg.)" < Latinnovum;
before a non-final preserved vowel, cf.tivit/ˈtivit/ "tepid, lukewarm" < Latintepidum,zinar/ˈzinar/ "son-in-law" < Latingenerum,ridi/ˈridi/ "to laugh" < Vulgar Latin*rīdere (Classicalrīdēre).
It is quite possible that vowel lengthening occurred originally in all stressed open syllables, and was later lost in non-final syllables.[15] Evidence of this is found, for example, in the divergent outcome of Vulgar Latin*/ɛ/, which becomes/jɛ/ in originally closed syllables but/i(ː)/ in Central Friulian in originally open syllables, including when non-finally. Examples:siet "seven" < Vulgar Latin*/sɛtte/ < LatinSEPTEM, word-finalpît "foot" < Vulgar Latin*/pɛde/ < LatinPEDEM, non-word-finaltivit/ˈtivit/ "tepid, lukewarm" < Vulgar Latin*/tɛpedu/ < LatinTEPIDUM.
An additional source of vowel length iscompensatory lengthening before lost consonants in certain circumstances, cf.pâri "father" < Latinpatrem,vôli "eye" < Latinoc(u)lum,lîre "pound" < Latinlibra. This produces long vowels in non-final syllables, and was apparently a separate, later development than the primary lengthening in open syllables. Note, for example, the development of Vulgar Latin*/ɛ/ in this context:*/ɛ/ >*/jɛ/ >iê/jeː/, as inpiêre "stone" < LatinPETRAM, differing from the outcome/i(ː)/ in originally open syllables (see above).
Additional complications:
Central Friulian has lengthening before/r/ even in originally closed syllables, cf.cjâr/caːr/ "cart" < Latincarrum (homophonous withcjâr "dear [masc. sg.]" < Latincārum). This represents a late, secondary development, and some conservative dialects have the expected length distinction here.
Lengthening doesn't occur beforenasal consonants even in originally open syllables, cf.pan/paŋ/ "bread" < Latinpanem,prin/priŋ/ "first" < Latinprīmum.
Special developments produced absolutely word-final long vowels and length distinctions, cf.fi "fig" < LatinFĪCUM vs.fî "son" < LatinFĪLIUM,no "no" < LatinNŌN vs.nô "we" < LatinNŌS.
Synchronic analyses of vowel length in Friulian often claim that it occurs predictably in final syllables before an underlying voicedobstruent, which is then devoiced.[16] Analyses of this sort have difficulty with long-vowel contrasts that occur non-finally (e.g.pâri "father" mentioned above) or not in front of obstruents (e.g.fi "fig" vs.fî "son",val "valley" vs.vâl "it is worth").
Most feminine nouns end in-e, which is pronounced, unlike in Standard French:
cjase = house (from Latin "casa, -ae" hut)
lune = moon (from Latin "luna, -ae")
scuele = school (from Latin "schola, -ae")
Some feminine nouns, however, end in a consonant, including those ending in-zion, which are fromLatin.
man = hand (from Latin "manŭs, -ūs" f)
lezion = lesson (from Latin "lectio, -nis" f
Note that in some Friulian dialects the -e feminine ending is actually an -a or an -o, which characterize the dialect area of the language and are referred to asa/o-ending dialects (e.g.cjase is spelled ascjaso orcjasa - the latter being the oldest form of the feminine ending).
Most masculine nouns end either in a consonant or in-i.
cjan = dog
gjat = cat
fradi = brother
libri = book
A few masculine nouns end in-e, includingsisteme (system) andprobleme (problem). They are usually words coming fromAncient Greek. However, because most masculine nouns end in a consonant, it is common to find the formssistem andproblem instead, more often in print than in speech.
There are also a number of masculine nouns borrowed intact fromItalian, with a final-o, liketreno (train). Many of the words have been fully absorbed into the language and even form their plurals with the regular Friulian-s rather than the Italiandesinence changing. Still, there are some purists, including those influential in Friulian publishing, who frown on such words and insist that the "proper" Friulian terms should be without the final-o. Despite the fact that one almost always hearstreno, it is almost always writtentren.
Before a vowel, bothil andla can be abbreviated to l' in the standard forms - for exampleil + arbul (the tree) becomesl'arbul. Yet, as far as the articlela is concerned, modern grammar recommends that its non elided form should be preferred over the elided one:la acuile (the eagle) although in speech the twoa sounds are pronounced as a single one. In the spoken language, various other articles are used.[17]
The indefinite article in Friulian (which corresponds toa andan in English) derives from the Latinunus and varies according to gender:
A Friulianadjective must agree in gender and number with the noun it qualifies. Most adjectives have four forms for singular (masculine and feminine) and plural (masculine and feminine):
Declension
Number
Masculine
Feminine
Singular
brut
brute
Plural
bruts
brutis
(Like for nouns, for a/o-ending dialects the plural is simply obtained by adding ans - e.g.brute corresponds tobruta/bruto and its plural formbrutis isbrutas/brutos).
The feminine is formed in several ways from the masculine:
in most cases, all that is needed is -e (short:curt,curte)
if the final letter is a -c, the feminine can end with -cje, -gje, -che, -ghe (little: pôc, pôcje)
if the final letter is a -f, the feminine can end with -ve (new:gnûf, gnove)
if the final letter is a -p, the feminine can end with -be (sour:garp, garbe)
if the final letter is a -t, the feminine can end with -de (green:vert, verde)
To form the plural of masculine and feminine nouns ending in -e, the -e is changed to -is (whilst a/o-ending dialects simply add an s)
taule,taulis = table, tables
cjase,cjasis = house, houses
lune,lunis = moon, moons
scuele,scuelis = school, schools
sisteme,sistemis = system, systems
manece,manecis = glove, gloves
gnece,gnecis = niece, nieces
The plural of almost all other nouns is just -s. It is always pronounced as voiceless [s], as inEnglishcats, never as voiced [z], as indogs.
man,mans = hand, hands
lezion,lezions = lesson, lessons
cjan,cjans = dog, dogs
gjat,gjats = cat, cats
fradi,fradis = brother, brothers
libri,libris = book, books
tren,trens = train, trains
braç,braçs = arm, arms (from Latin "bracchium")
guant,guants = glove, gloves (compare English "gauntlet")
In some Friulian dialects, there are many words whose final consonant becomes silent when the -s is added. The words include just about all those whose singular form ends in -t. The plural ofgjat, for example, is written asgjats but is pronounced in much of Friuli as if it weregjas. The plural ofplat 'dish', though written asplats, is often pronounced asplas. Other words in this category includeclâf (key) andclap (stone), whose plural forms, clâfs and claps, are often pronounced with no f or p, respectively (clâs, clas) so the longer a in the former is all that distinguishes it from the latter. A final -ç, which is pronounced either as theEnglish "-ch" (in central Friulian) or as "-s", is pluralized in writing as -çs, regardless of whether the pluralized pronunciation is "-s" or "-ts" (it varies according to dialect): messaç / messaçs (message).
Masculine nouns ending in -l or -li form their plurals by palatalising final -l or -li to -i.
cjaval,cjavai = horse, horses (from Latin "caballus")
fîl,fîi = string, strings (from Latin "filum")
cjapiel,cjapiei = hat, hats
cjaveli,cjavei = hair, hairs
voli,voi = eye, eyes
zenoli,zenoi = knee, knees (from Latin "genuculus")
Notice how these very often correspond to French nouns that form an irregular plural in -x:cheval-chevaux, chapeau-chapeaux, cheveu-cheveux, oeil-yeux, genou-genoux.
Feminine nouns ending in -l have regular plurals.
piel,piels = skin, skins
val,vals (in northern Friulian also "tal", "tals") = valley, valleys
Masculine nouns ending in -st form their plurals by palatalising the final -t to -cj
cavalarist,cavalariscj = military horseman, military horsemen
test,tescj = text, texts
Some masculine nouns ending in -t form their plurals by palatalising the final -t to -cj:
dint,dincj = tooth, teeth (from Latin "dens, -tis")
dut,ducj = all (of one thing), all (of several things) (from Latin "totus")
Nouns ending in "s" do not change spelling in the plural, but some speakers may pronounce the plural -s differently from the singular -s.[clarification needed]
vues = bone, bones
pes = fish (singular or plural) (from Latin "piscis")
mês = month, months (from Latin "mensis")
The plural ofan (year) has several forms depending on dialect, includingain,ains,agn andagns. Regardless of pronunciation, the written form isagns.
The same happens for the adjectivebon (good), as its plural isbogns.
A feature of Friulian are the cliticsubjectpronouns. Known in Friulian aspleonastics, they are never stressed; they are used together with the verb to express the subject and can be found before theverb indeclarative sentences or immediately after it in case ofinterrogative or vocative (optative) sentences.
Weak pronouns
Declaration
Question
Invocation
I
o
-(i)o
-(i)o
You (singular)
tu
-tu
-tu
He
al
-(i)al
-(i)al
She
e
-(i)e
-(i)e
We
o
-o
-o
You (plural)
o
-o
-o
They
-a
-o
-o
An example:jo o lavori means "I work";lavorio? means "Do I work?", whilelavorassio means "I wish I worked".
Friulian verbalinfinitives have one of four endings, -â, -ê, -i, -î; removing the ending gives the root, used to form the other forms (fevelâ, to speak; rootfevel-), but in the case of irregular verbs, the root changes. They are common (jessi, to be;vê, to have;podê, to be able to). Verbs are frequently used in combination with adverbs to restrict the meaning.
An adjective can be made into anadverb by adding -mentri to the ending of the feminine singular form of the adjective (lente becomeslentementri, slowly), but it can sometimes[18] lose the -e of the adjective (facile becomesfacilmentri, easily). It is more common in the written language; in the spoken language people frequently use other forms or locutions (a planc for slowly).
Most vocabulary is derived from Latin, with substantial phonological and morphological changes throughout its history. Therefore, many words are shared with the otherRomance languages,[19]Here the composition:
Rhaetic andCeltic (9%) words are many, because the substrate of the Vulgar Latin spoken in Friuli, was the Rhaetic language and the Karn-Celtic language. ("bâr", wood; "clap/crap", stone;"cjâr", plow)
ModernGerman (10%) words were introduced in particular in theMiddle Ages, during thePatrie dal Friûl, when the influence from this culture was quite strong (bearç, backyard; "crot", frog/toad).
Slavic (3%) words were brought bySlavic (mostlyAlpine Slavic) immigrants called several times toFriuli to repopulate lands devastated byHungarian invasions in the 10th century (cjast, barn;zigâ, to shout). Furthermore, many Slavic words have entered Friulian through the centuries-long neighbouring between Friulians andSlovenes, especially in north-eastern Friuli (Slavia Friulana) and in theGorizia and Gradisca area. Words such ascolaç (cake),cudiç (devil) andcos (basket) are all ofSlovene origin. There are also many toponyms with Slavic roots.
There are many words that have Germanic (8%, probablyLombardic origins), Celtic and Rhaetic roots (what still remained of the languages spoken before the Romans came). Examples of the first category aresbregâ, to tear;sedon, spoon;taponâ, to cover. For the latter categories,troi, path;bragons, trousers.
SomeFrench words entered the Friulian vocabulary:pardabon, really andgustâ, to have lunch.
Italian itself has a growing influence on Friulian vocabulary, especially as far as neologisms are concerned (tren meaning train). Such neologisms are currently used even if they're not accepted in the official dictionary (for example the verb "to iron" issopressâ but the verbstirâ taken from Italian is used more and more instead).
Scientific terms are often of Greek origin, and there are also someArabic terms in Friulian (<1%,lambic, still).
ManyEnglish words (such as computer, monitor, mouse and so on) have entered the Friulian vocabulary through Italian. (more than 1%).
Nowadays, Friulian is officially recognized inItaly, supported by law 482/1999, which protects linguistic minorities. Therefore, optional teaching of Friulian has been introduced in many primary schools. An online newspaper is active,[citation needed] and there are also a number of musical groups singing in Friulian and some theatrical companies. Recently, two movies have been made in Friulian (Tierç lion,Lidrîs cuadrade di trê), with positive reviews in Italian newspapers.[when?] In about 40% of the communities in theProvince of Udine, road signs are in both Friulian and Italian. There is also an official translation of theBible. In 2005, a notable brand of beer used Friulian for one of its commercials.[citation needed]
The main association to foster the use and development of Friulian is theSocietât filologjiche furlane, founded inGorizia in 1919.
Every city and village in Friuli has twonames, one inItalian and one in Friulian. Only the Italian is official and used in administration, but it is widely expected[citation needed] that the Friulian ones will receive partial acknowledgement in the near future. For example, the city ofUdine is calledUdin in Friulian, the town ofTolmezzoTumieç and the town ofAviano is called bothDavian andPleif.
A challenge that Friulian shares with other minority languages is to codify a standard variety and a suitable writing system. The regional law 15/1996 approved a standard orthography, which represents the basis of a common variant and should be used in toponyms, official acts, written documents. The standard is based on Central Friulian, which was traditionally the language used in literature already in 1700 and afterwards (the biggest examples are probably Pieri Çorut's works) but with some changes:
There have been several critics of the standardisation of Friulian, mainly from speakers of local varieties that differ substantially from the proposed standard; they also argue that the standard could eventually kill local variants. The supporters of standardisation refer to the various advantages that a unique form can bring to the language. Above all, it can help to stop the influence ofItalian language in theneologisms, which pose a serious threat to Friulian's future development. They also point out that it is a written standard without affecting pronunciation, which can follow local variants.
Opponents of the standardisation, on the other hand, insist that the standard language, being artificially created, is totally inadequate to represent the local variations, particularly from differences in the phonetic pronunciation of the words in each variant that may, in some cases, even require special and different diacritics for writing a single variant.
At least four dialects of Friulian can be distinguished, allmutually intelligible. They are usually distinguished by the last vowel of many parts of speech (including nouns, adjectives, adverbs), following this scheme:
Central Friulian, spoken aroundUdine has words ending with -e. It is used in official documents and generally considered standard. Some people see it as the least original but one of the most recent variants since it does not show interesting features found in other variants, as it has Venetian influence.
Northern Friulian, spoken inCarnia, has several variants. The language can vary with the valleys and words can end in -o, -e or -a. It is the most archaic variant.
Southeastern Friulian, spoken inBassa Friulana and Eastern Friuli, in the area along theIsonzo River (the area of the oldContea di Gorizia e Gradisca), has words that end with -a. This variant has been known since the origins of the language and was used as official literary language by the Friulians of the Austrian Empire. It was influenced by German and Slavic.
Western Friulian, including Pordenonese, is spoken in theProvince of Pordenone and is also calledconcordiese, fromConcordia Sagittaria. Words end with -a or -e, but the strong Venetian influence, makes it be considered one of the most corrupted variants.
The word forhome iscjase in Central Friulian andcjasa orcjaso in other areas.Pier Paolo Pasolini wrote his works in Western Friulian since he learned the language from his mother who was fromCasarsa/Cjasarsa,[20] nearPordenone.
In the 13th century, early literary works in Friulian were based on the language spoken in Cividale del Friuli, which was the most important town in Friuli. The endings in -o, which now is restricted to some villages inCarnia. Later, the main city ofFriuli becameUdine and the most common ending was -a; only from the 16th century on, -e endings were used in standard Friulian.
In the official writing system, approved by the (former, abolished in 2017)Province of Udine and used in official documents, Friulian is written using theLatin script with the c-cedilla (ç). The letter q is used only for personal names and historical toponyms, and in every other case, it is replaced by c. Besides that, k, x, w, and y appear only in loan words so they are not considered part of the alphabet.
Aa Bb Cc Çç Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Zz
There are alsograve accents (à, è, ì, ò and ù) andcircumflex accents (â, ê, î, ô, and û), which are put above thevowels to distinguish between homophonic words or to show stress (the former) and show long vowels (the latter).
An alternative system is calledFaggin-Nazzi from the names of the scholars who proposed it. It is less common, probably also because it is more difficult for a beginner for its use of letters, such as č, that are typical ofSlavic languages but seem foreign to native Italian speakers.
La bolp e jere di gnûf famade. In chel e a viodût un corvat poiât suntun pin, ch'al tigneve un toc di formadi tal bec. "Chel si che mi plasarès!" e a pensât le bolp, e e disè al corvát: "Ce biel che tu sês! Se il to cjant al é biel come il to aspiet, di sigûr tu sês il plui biel di ducj i ucei!
Paola Benincà & Laura Vanelli.Linguistica friulana. Padova: Unipress, 2005.
Paola Benincà & Laura Vanelli. "Friulian", inThe Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages, eds. Adam Ledgeway & Martin Maiden. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016, pp. 139–53.
Franc Fari, ed.Manuâl di lenghistiche furlane. Udine: Forum, 2005.
Paolo Roseano.Suddivisione dialettale del friulano, inManuale di linguistica friulana, eds. S. Heinemann & L. Melchior. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2015, pp. 155–186.
The grammar section is based onAn introduction to Friulan by R. Pontisso. Some parts are also based loosely onGramatiche furlane by Fausto Zof, Edizioni Leonardo, Udine 2002.
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^Marchesini, Simona (2018)."Raetic".Mnamon - Ancient Writing Systems in the Mediterranean. Translated by Rockenhaus, Melanie. Scuola Normale Superiore. Retrieved26 July 2018.
^Marchesini, Simona (2013). "I rapporti etrusco/retico-italici nella prima Italia alla luce dei dati linguistici: il caso della "mozione" etrusca".Rivista storica dell'antichità (in Italian).43. Bologna: Pàtron editore:9–32.ISSN0300-340X.
^Pavel Iosad,Final devoicing and vowel lengthening in the north of Italy: A representational approach, Slides, Going Romance 24, December 10th 2010, Universiteit Leiden, Academia Lugduno Batava[1]
^In Northern Friuli,el is used instead ofil. In Southern and Western Friuli,al is used instead ofil. In Northern Friuli,li orlas is used instead oflis andle instead ofla.
^Such is the case of FriulIan adjectives deriving from Latin adjectives of the second class.
^Venetian is either grouped with the rest of the Italo-Dalmatian or the Gallo-Italic languages, depending on the linguist, but the major consensus among linguists is that in the dialectal landscape of northern Italy, Veneto dialects are clearly distinguished from Gallo-Italic dialects.
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