The foundation of the city of Essaouira was the work of the Moroccan'Alawid sultanMohammed bin Abdallah, who made an original experiment by entrusting it to several architects in 1760, in particularThéodore Cornut andAhmed al-Inglizi, who designed the city using French captives from the failedFrench expedition to Larache in 1765, and with the mission of building a city adapted to the needs of foreign merchants. Once built, it continued to grow and experienced a golden age and exceptional development, becoming the country's most important commercial port but also its diplomatic capital between the end of the 18thcentury and the first half of the19th century.
The name of the city is usually spelledEssaouira in Latin script, andالصويرة in Arabic script. Both spellings represent its name inMoroccan Arabic,aṣ-Ṣwiṛa. This is the diminutive[2] (with definite article) of the nounṣuṛ which means "wall (as round a yard, city), rampart".[3] The pronunciation withpharyngealized /sˁ/ and /rˁ/ is a typically Moroccan development. In Classical Arabic, the noun issūr (سور, with plain /s/ and /r/), diminutivesuwayrah (سويرة); this is the only form cited in all dictionaries of Classical Arabic. Hence, the spelling of the name in Arabic script according to the classical pronunciation isالسويرةas-Suwayrah (withsīn notṣād).
Until the 1960s, Essaouira was generally known by itsPortuguese name,Mogador. This name is probably a corruption ofAmegdul (Arabic:أمقدول,romanized: Ameqdūl), which was mentioned by the 11th-century geographeral-Bakrī.[4] The nameMogador originated from thePhoenician wordMigdol, meaning 'small fortress'.[5]
Archaeological research shows that Essaouira has been occupied sinceprehistoric times. The bay at Essaouira is partially sheltered by theisland of Mogador, making it a peaceful harbor protected against strong marine winds.
Essaouira has long been considered one of the best anchorages of the Moroccan coast. TheCarthaginian navigatorHanno visited in the 5th century BCE and established the trading post of Arambys.
In 1506, the king of Portugal, D.Manuel I, ordered a fortress to be built there, namedCastelo Real de Mogador. Altogether, the Portuguese are documented to have seized six Moroccan towns and built six stand-alone fortresses on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, between the river Loukos in the north and theriver of Sous in the south. Four of them only had a short duration:Graciosa (1489),São João da Mamora (1515),Castelo Real of Mogador (1506–10) andAguz (1520–25). Two became permanent urban settlements:Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué (modernAgadir, founded in 1505–06), andMazagan, founded in 1514–17. Following the 1541Fall of Agadir, the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keepCeuta,Tangier and Mazagan.[7]
Thefortress of Castelo Real of Mogador fell to the local resistance of theRegraga fraternity four years after its establishment, in 1510.
During the 16th century, powers including Spain, England, the Netherlands and France tried in vain to conquer the locality. Essaouira remained a haven for the export of sugar andmolasses and as an anchorage forpirates.[8]
France was involved in an early attempt to colonize Mogador in 1629. AsRichelieu andPère Joseph were attempting to establish a colonial policy, AdmiralIsaac de Razilly suggested they occupy Mogador in 1626, which he had reconnoitered in 1619. The objective was to create a base against the Sultan of Morocco and asphyxiate the harbour ofSafi.[citation needed]
He departed forSalé on 20 July 1629 with a fleet composed of the shipsLicorne,Saint-Louis,Griffon,Catherine,Hambourg,Sainte-Anne,Saint-Jean. He bombarded the city of Salé, destroyed three corsair ships, and then sent theGriffon under Captain Treillebois to Mogador. The men of Razilly saw the fortress of Castelo Real in Mogador and landed 100 men with wood and supplies on Mogador island, with the agreement of Richelieu. After a few days, however, theGriffon reembarked the colonists and departed to rejoin the fleet in Salé.[9]
After these expeditions, France signed a treaty withAbd el-Malek II in 1631, giving France preferential treatment, known as "capitulations": preferential tariffs, the establishment of a Consulate, and freedom of religion for French subjects.[10]
Map of Essaouira byThéodore Cornut. When he left in 1767, areas in pink were already built (streets are still recognizable); areas in yellow (harbour front andmedina) were only projected.Harbour fortifications were built by an Englishrenegade namedAhmed El Alj in 1770, as described in the sculptured inscription in Arabic (right).
The present city of Essaouira was built during the mid-eighteenth century by the Moroccan King.[11]Mohammed III tried to reorient his kingdom toward the Atlantic for increased exchanges with European powers, choosing Mogador as his key location. One of his objectives was to establish a harbour at the closest possible point to Marrakesh.[12] The other was to cut off trade from Agadir in the south, which had been favouring a political rival of Mohammed III, and the inhabitants of Agadir were forced to relocate to Essaouira.[12]
For 12 years, Mohammed III directed a French engineer,Théodore Cornut, and several other Moroccan and European architects and technicians to build the fortress and city along modern lines.[12][13] Originally called "Souira" ("the small fortress"),[14] the name became "Es-Saouira" ("the beautifully designed").
Thédore Cornut designed and built the city itself, particularly the Kasbah area, corresponding to the royal quarters and the buildings for Christian merchants and diplomats. Other parts were built by other architects, including Moroccan architects especially from Fez, Marrakesh, and Rabat. The harbour entrance, with the "Porte de la Marine", was built by an Englishrenegade by the name ofAhmed el Inglizi ("Ahmed the English") or Ahmed El Alj ("Ahmed the Renegade").[13] Mohammed III took numerous steps to encourage the development of Essaouira including closing off the harbour of Agadir to the south in 1767 so that southern trade could be redirected through Essaouira. European communities in the northern harbour ofRabat-Salé were ordered to move to Essaouira through an ordinance of 21 January 1765.[citation needed]
From the time of its rebuilding by Muhammad III until the end of the nineteenth century, Essaouira served as Morocco's principal port, offering the goods of thecaravan trade to the world. The route brought goods fromsub-Saharan Africa toTimbuktu, then through the desert and over theAtlas Mountains to Marrakesh. The road from Marrakesh to Essaouira is a straight line, explaining the king's choice of this port among the many others along the Moroccan coast.
A Jewish house in Mogador, byDarondeau (1807–1841).
Mohammed III encouraged Moroccan Jews to settle in the town and handle the trade with Europe. Jews once comprised the majority of the population.[15] According to a French botanist visiting in 1867, Jews comprised half of Essaouira's population of 12,000.[14] The city flourished until the caravan trade died, superseded by direct European shipping trade with sub-Saharan Africa.[16] Changes in trade, the founding of Israel, the resulting wars with Arab states, and the independence of Morocco all resulted in Sephardic Jews leaving the country. As of 2017, Essaouira had only three Jewish inhabitants.[17]
In the 19th century, Essaouira became the first seaport of Morocco, with trade volumes about double those ofRabat.[19] The city functioned as the harbour for Marrakesh, as it was only a few days from the inland city.[20] Diplomatic and trade representations were established by European powers in Essouira.[21] In the 1820s, European diplomats were concentrated in either Tangier or Essaouira.[22]
Remains of the 19th-century Dutch Consulate in Essaouira.
Remains of the 19th-century Portuguese Consulate in Essaouira.
In the spring of 1864, theCommerce Raider,CSS Georgia of theConfederate States of America'sNavy arrived off of the coast of the City as a reprieve from a hard winter's sail. Upon arrival, the crew were able to lower aCutter and bend oars towards the shore. Upon landing, the crew was greeted by hostile Moroccans who knew both who they were and that their government was hostile towards them, despite spoken neutrality. The officers were then forced, at gunpoint back towards the sea and into the boats from which they arrived. Back on the ship, CaptainMatthew Fontaine Maury ordered a shot from theGeorgia's ten inch turret gun, followed by a salvo bombardment. No Moroccan casualties were recorded, due to their retreat from the shore during the initial shot fired. This marked the only time that Confederate guns were fired anywhere besides North America.[24]
From 1912 to 1956, Essaouira was part of theFrench protectorate of Morocco. Mogador was used as a base for a military expedition against Dar Anflous, when 8,000 French troops were located outside the city under the orders of GeneralsFranchet d'Esperey and Brulard. The Kasbah of Dar Anflous was taken on 25 January 1913. In 1930, brothers,Michel andJean Vieuchange used Essaouira as a base before Michel set off into theWestern Sahara to try to findSmara.
France had an important administrative, military and economic presence. Essaouira had a Franco-Moroccan school, still visible in Derb Dharb street. Linguistically, many Moroccans of Essaouira speak French fluently today.
Essaouira is protected by a natural bay partially shielded from wave action by theIles Purpuraires. A broad sandy beach extends from the harbour south of Essaourira, at which point theOued Ksob discharges to the ocean; south of the discharge lies the archaeological ruin, theBordj El Berod.[30] TheCanary Current is responsible for the generally southward movement of ocean circulation and has led to enhancement of the localfishery.[31] The village ofDiabat lies about five kilometres (3.1 miles) south of Essaouira, immediately south of theOued Ksob.
Essaouira's climate issemi-arid climate (BSk/BSh), with mild temperatures year round. The gap between highs and lows is small and summers are warm while winters are mild. Annual rainfall is usually 300 to 500 millimetres (12 to 20 in). The highest temperature ever recorded in Essaouira was 35.7 °C (96.3 °F) on 18 April 2017.[32] The lowest temperature ever recorded was 2.2 °C (36.0 °F) on 29 January 2005. The lowest maximum temperature ever recorded was 11.8 °C (53.2 °F) on 15 February 2018. The highest minimum temperature ever recorded was 26.7 °C (80.1 °F) on 13 October 2017. The maximum amount of precipitation recorded in one day was 99.1 millimetres (3.90 in) on 8 March 2013.[33]
Climate data for Essaouira (1991-2020, extremes 1982–present)
The medina is home to many small arts and crafts businesses, notablycabinet making and 'thuya'wood-carving (using roots of theTetraclinis tree), both of which have been practised in Essaouira for centuries.
The fishing harbour, suffering from the competition of Agadir andSafi, remains rather small, although the catches (sardines,conger eels) are surprisingly abundant due to the coastalupwelling generated by the powerfultrade winds and theCanaries Current. Essaouira remains one of the major fishing harbours of Morocco.
Essaouira is also a center ofargan oil production.
Since 1998, theGnaoua Festival of World Music is held in Essaouira, normally in the last week of June. It brings together artists from all over the world. Although focused ongnaoua music, it includes rock, jazz and reggae. Known as the "MoroccanWoodstock" it lasts four days and attracts around 450,000 spectators annually.[39]
^On the formation of diminutive nouns in Moroccan Arabic, see R.S. Harrell,A short reference grammar of Moroccan Arabic (Washington, D.C., 1962), p. 81.
^See T. Fox and M. Abu-Talib,A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic (Washington, D.C., 1966), p. 148.
^Mac Guckin de Slane (ed. and transl.),Description de l'Afrique septentrionale par el-Bekri (Alger 1913), Arabic text p. 86مرسى امقدولmarsá Ameqdūl "the port of Ameqdūl", translation p. 175Amegdoul (Amegdul), with footnote: "Le tombeau ou chapelle de Sîdi Megdoul est situé tout auprès de Mogador; ce dernier est une altération deMegdoul".
^abOf Essaouira: "He employed European architects to design it, one a Frenchman said to be his prisoner, and the other an Englishman, converted to Islam and known as Ahmed el-Inglizi— otherwise Ahmed the Englishman." inMorocco, Dorothy Hales Gary, Baron Patrick Balfour Kinross, Viking Press, 1971, p.35
^Schroeter, Daniel J (1988).Merchants of Essaouira: Urban Society and Imperialism in Southwestern Morocco, 1844–1886. Cambridge University Press. pp. 117–131.
Jean-Marie Thiébaud,Les Inscriptions du cimetière [chrétien] de Mogador (Essaouira, Maroc) – étude épigraphique et généalogique, L'Harmattan, 2010Harmattan.fr
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