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Edible mushroom

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Edible fungi fruit bodies

"Mushroom (food)" redirects here. For other uses, seeMushroom.
Assorted wild edible mushrooms

Edible mushrooms are the fleshyfruit bodies of numerous species of properlyidentified and preparedfungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including their palatability and absence of dangerousmycotoxins. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional andculinary value, often either beingcultivated orharvested wild. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain may be collected on a smaller scale.

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadlypoisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genusAmanita, particularlyA. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can causeallergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can causefood poisoning. Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals from polluted locations,accumulating pollutants and potentially lethalheavy metals.

Psychoactive mushrooms can also be confused with edible species. Additionally, mushrooms wereconsumed medicinally intraditional medicine, but are notupheld by evidence. Edible species typically must be cooked, sometimes requiringparboiling orslow cooking to destroy toxins, with only select species able to be eaten raw. Many can also becanned,dried,pickled, orsalted.

Description

[edit]
See also:§ Safety concerns, and§ Uses

Edibility may be defined by criteria including desirabletaste andaroma and the absence ofpoisonous effects on humans.[1] Edible mushrooms are consumed for theirnutritional andculinary value. Mushrooms, especially driedshiitake, are sources ofumami flavor.[2][3] Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are eitherharvested wild orcultivated.[4]

Wild mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand.[5] Correctidentification is required to prevent the confusion of potentially fatal poisonous mushrooms with edible ones.[6][7][8] Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.[9]

Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in grocery stores andfarmers' markets when in season; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as thetruffle,matsutake, andmorel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes even sold as luxury items.[10] Mushrooms can be purchased fresh and many are also sold dried.[11] Many species require cooking to eliminatetoxicity.[6][12]

List of provisionally edible mushrooms

[edit]
Mushroom imagePart imageScientific nameCommon nameDescriptionDistributionCultivationEdibility
Agaricus arvensisHorse mushroom[13]Up to 20 cm (8 in) wide; resembles deadlyAmanita species[14]Britain and North AmericaHarvested wildEdible for most people, but can resemble deadly Amanitas[15]
Agaricus bisporusButton mushroom, common mushroom, cremini, portobello, and others[16][17]As it ages, it turns from small, white and smooth to large and light brown.[17]Widespread[citation needed] in rich soil[18]Widely cultivated[18]Edible and widely consumed[16][17]
Agaricus campestrisField mushroomUp to 12 cm (4+1⁄2 in) wide;[19] resembles deadly Amanitas[20]Widespread in grasses[21]Harvested wildChoice,[19][22] but can resemble poisonous species[23]
Agaricus silvaticusPinewood mushroomUp to 10 cm wide[24]Harvested wildEdible cooked,[25][24] but resembles some inedible species[26]
Aleuria aurantiaOrange peel fungusUp to 10 cm wide, orange, cup-shaped, and fuzzy[27]Europe and North America[28][27]Harvested wildEdible but difficult to collect[29][30]
Amanita caesareaCaesar's Amanita[31]Orange to redcap, up to 20 cm wide;[31] resembles the poisonousAmanita muscaria[32]North Africa, Eurasia, and North America[31]Harvested wildEdible, reportedly raw and cooked[33]
Amanita fulvaTawny grisetteUp to 10 cm wide;[34] resembles poisonous AmanitasEurope and North America[35][34]Edible cooked[36]
Amanita muscariaFly agaricRed cap with white warts; up to 30 cm wide[37]Widespread;[38][39] symbiotic with various treesParboiling is required.[40] When fresh, it contains the hallucinogenmuscimol and someibotenic acid.[41]
Amanita rubescensBlusherUp to 15 cm wide;[42] resembles related species[43]Eurasia,[citation needed] western North America[43]Edible when cooked,[44] which destroys a toxin[45]
Armillaria melleaHoney mushroomUp to 15 cm wide[46]Eurasia,[citation needed] North America[47]Harvested wildEdible, usually excluding the tough stalk;[46] best when young and well-cooked[48]
Boletus edulisPorcinoReddish-brown cap up to 30 cm or more wide[49]Widespread in Northern Hemisphere[50]Commercially harvestedChoice[51]
Boletus pinophilusPine boleteCap up to 40 cm wide[52]Eurasia[53]Commercially harvestedReportedly edible[54]
Boletus variipesTannish cap[55]Eastern North America with hardwoods[56]Commercially harvestedChoice[57]
Calbovista subsculptaSculptured giant puffballUp to 15 cm (6 in) wide[25]Western North America in montane areas[58]Commercially harvestedChoice while thegleba is still firm and white[59]
Calocybe gambosaSt. George's mushroomUp to 15 cm wide[60]Europe from spring to summer[60]Harvested wildEdible cooked or pickled[60]
Calvatia cyathiformisPurple-sporedpuffballUp to 20 cm wide[61]North America[61] and AustraliaHarvested wildReportedly edible when young[62]
Calvatia giganteaGiant puffballUp to 60 cm (20 in) wide and 20 kilograms (45 lb)[63]Temperate areas around the world in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests from late summer and autumn[63][64]Commercially harvestedChoice when immature and white, but may cause a laxative effect[64]
Cantharellus cibariusGolden chanterelleUp to 15 cm wide[65]Europe[66]Commercially harvestedChoice[67] but resembles some poisonous mushrooms[65][68]
Cerioporus squamosusDryad's saddle and pheasant's back mushroomUp to 30 cm or more wide[69][70]Europe[70] and eastern U.S.[69]Harvested wildEdible young and cooked[71][70]
ChroogomphusPine-spikes or spike-capsNorthern Hemisphere[72]Harvested wildSome edible species[73]
Collybia nudaBlewit[74]Up to 15 cm wide;[75] may resemble toxicCortinarius speciesEurope and North AmericaCommercially harvestedEdible[74]
Collybia personata (syn.Lepista saeva)Field blewit or blue legUp to 12 cm wide[76]Europe[76]Edible[77]
Coprinopsis atramentaria (syn.Coprinus atramentarius)Common inkcapUp to 10 cm wide[78]Northern Hemisphere and Australia[79][80]Edible when young but toxic if consumed with alcohol due to the presence ofcoprine[81][82]
Coprinus comatusShaggy mane, shaggy inkcap or lawyer's wigUp to 8 cm wide[83]North America in grasslands and meadows[84]Harvested wildMust be cooked as soon as possible after harvesting or the caps will deliquesce (turn to 'ink')[85][86]
Cortinarius caperatusGypsy mushroomTannish cap, up to 12 cm wide[87]Northern Europe and northern North America[88][89]Commercially harvestedChoice,[90] but can resemble some poisonous European species[91]
Craterellus cornucopioidesTrumpet of death or horn of plentyUp to 8 cm wide[92]Eurasia, North America, and Australia[93]Commercially harvestedChoice[94]
Craterellus tubaeformisTube chanterelle or yellowfootUp to 4 cm wide[95]North America and Asia[96][97]Commercially harvestedChoice[98]
Cyclocybe aegeritaPoplar fieldcapUp to 10 cm wide[99]Grows onpoplars and other trees[99]Commercially cultivated in Asia and Australia[99]Difficult to identify[100][101]
Cyttaria espinosaeChile[102]Harvested wildEdible[102]
Fistulina hepaticaBeefsteak polypore or ox tongueUp to 6 cm wide[103]Europe and North America[104][105]Harvested wildEdible but older specimens should be soaked overnight then cooked to avoid gastric upset[105]
Flammulina filiformisEnokiUp to 4.5 cm wide[106]AsiaCommercially cultivated[107]Asian cuisine[108]
Flammulina velutipesVelvet shankUp to 10 cm wide[109]Europe and North America[109][110]Harvested wildEdible cooked, best with the skin removed[111]
Gomphidius glutinosusSlimy spike-capUp to 12 cm wide[112]Eurasia[citation needed] and North America[113]Harvested wildEdible[114][115] but possibly not recommended; accumulatesheavy metals[116]
Grifola frondosaHen of the woods or sheep's headUp to 50 cm wide[117]Eastern North America[118] and Eurasia[117]Commercially harvestedChoice[119] but some may be allergic[118]
Gyromitra esculentaFalse morel, turban or brain mushroomUp to 12 cm wide[120]North America and Central Europe[120][121]Parboiling required to reducegyromitrin toxicity, which may not be fully effective[122]
Handkea utriformis (syn.Calvatia utriformis)Puffball, up to 25 cm wide[123]Widespread in northern temperate zones[124]Harvested wildEdible when immature and white[125]
Hericium erinaceusLion's mane[126]Tooth fungus up to 40 cm wide[127]Europe and North America[128][129]Commercially harvestedBest when young[126]
Hydnum repandumSweet tooth or hedgehog mushroom[130]Up to 17 cm or more wide[131]Europe and North America[132][131]Commercially harvestedChoice; cooking removes bitterness in older specimens[133]
Hygrophorus chrysodonGold flecked woodwaxUp to 14 cm wide[134]Northern Hemisphere[135]Harvested wildEdible but bland[136][137]
Hypsizygus tessulatusBeech mushroomCap up to 15 cm wide[138]North America[138]Commercially cultivatedTough flesh[138]
Imleria badiaBay boleteUp to 10 cm wide[139]Eurasia and North America[140][139]Harvested wildEdible but allergenic for some[141][142]
Kalaharituber pfeiliiUp to 12 cm wide[143]Southern Africa[144]Harvested wildEdible[144]
Laccocephalum mylittaeBlackfellow's breadSclerotium grows up to 60 cm wide[145]Australia[146]Harvested wildEdible but not choice[146]
Lactarius corrugisCorrugated-cap milky[147]Brownish-red cap up to 12 cm wide[148]Eastern North America withoak, July–Sept.[148]Choice[149]
Lactarius deliciosusSaffron milk capUp to 20 cm wide[150]Europe[150]Commercially harvestedNot necessarily choice, but popular in Russia[151]
Lactarius deterrimusOrange milkcapUp to 12 cm wideEurasia[152]Harvested wildEdible[153]
Lactarius hygrophoroidesUp to 8 cm wide[154]Eastern North America with oak, June–Sept.[154]Edible[139]
Lactarius indigoIndigo milk capBlue cap, fading to grayish;[155] up to 15 cm wide[156]Northern Hemisphere[157][158][159]Harvested wildEdible[160]
Lactarius paradoxusBlue-green to gray cap; up to 8 cm wide[161]Southern and eastern U.S., autumn–winter[161]Edible but bitter with age[161]
Lactarius rubrilacteusCap up to 14 cm wide[162]Western North America, June–Oct.[163]Harvested wildEdible but grainy[162]
Lactarius subdulcisMild milkcapUp to 7 cm wide[164]Europe[165]Harvested wildEdible when cooked but not choice[166]
Lactarius volemusFishy milkcapUp to 11 cm wide[164]Eurasia and North America[164][167][168]Harvested wildEdible but grainy; bestslow-cooked[168]
Laetiporus sulphureusSulphur shelf, chicken mushroomA distinctbracket fungus[169]Europe and North America[170][169]Harvested wildEdible when watery, after cooking[171][172]
Leccinum aurantiacumRed-capped scaber stalkOrange-red cap, up to 15 cm wide[173]Europe[174]Harvested wildEdible cooked, with risk of toxicity;[173][175] linked to one death[176]
Leccinum scabrumBirch boleteUp to 10 cm wide[177]Europe,[178] North America[177] and New Zealand[179]Harvested wildEdible when firm[177]
Leccinum versipelle (syn.Boletus testaceoscaber)Orange birch boleteOrangish cap, up to 15 cm wide[180]Europe, Aug.–Nov.[180]Harvested wildEdible cooked[180]
Lentinula edodesShiitakeSoutheast Asia[181]Commercially cultivated worldwide[182]Edible;[2] may causedermatitis for some unless cooked[183][184]
Macrolepiota proceraParasol mushroomUp to 25 cm wide[185]Eurasia[186]Harvested wildChoice but resembles some poisonous species[187][188]
Marasmius oreadesFairy ring champignonUp to 5 cm wide[189]Europe and North America[190][191]Harvested wildChoice[188]
Morchella spp. includingMorchella esculentaMorelsCan resemble poisonousfalse morels includingGyromitra esculentaNorthern Hemisphere; open scrub, woodland or open ground in late springCommercially harvested; difficult to grow commercially[192]Potentially toxic if uncooked or consumed with alcohol[193][194][195]
Phallus indusiatusBasket stinkhorn[196]Cap up to 4 cm wide;[196] stem up to 25 cm long[197]Tropical regions[198][199]Commercially cultivatedAsian cuisine[200]
Pleurotus ostreatusOyster mushroomUp to 30 cm wide;[201] resembles toxic species[202]Widespread in temperate and subtropical areas[203]Commercially cultivated at an industrial scale[204]Choice[201] but resembles inedibleLentinellus species[202][205]
Pseudohydnum gelatinosumToothed jelly fungusUp to 7 cm wide and tall[206]Eurasia[207]Harvested wildEdible[206]
Sparassis crispaCauliflower mushroomUp to 24 cm across[208]Europe[209]Harvested wildEdible when young;[210] bestslow-cooked[211]
Stropharia rugosoannulataWine capUp to 30 cm wide[212]North America[213]Commercially cultivatedChoice[214]
Suillus bovinusBovine boleteUp to 10 cm wide[215]Eurasia,[216] South Africa,[217] North America,[218] and Australasia[219]Harvested wildEdible[220]
Suillus brevipesShort-stemmed slippery JackUp to 10 cm wide[221]North America[221]Harvested wildEdible[222]
Suillus decipiensYellowish cap, up to 7 cm wide; yellowtubes[223]Southeastern North America[223]Harvested wildEdible[223]
Suillus granulatusWeeping bolete, granulated boleteBrownish cap, up to 12 cm wide[224]Northern Hemisphere with pines[225]Harvested wildEdible[226]
Suillus grevilleiTamarack jack[227]Orangish cap, up to 10 cm wide[228]Eurasia and North America underlarch[228][229][227]Harvested wildEdible cooked, with thecap cuticle removed[223][228]
Suillus luteusSlippery jackBrownish cap, up to 10 cm or more wide[230]Northern Hemisphere[231]Harvested wildEdible with the cap cuticle removed;[232][233] allergenic for some[234]
Suillus spragueiPainted suillusYellow cap with reddish scales; up to 12 cm wide[235][236]Eurasia and North America[237]Harvested wildEdible[238]
Suillus tomentosusWoolly-capped suillusUp to 12 cm wide[239]North America[240]Harvested wildCan cause gastric upset[238]
Tremella fuciformisWhite jelly mushroomUp to 7 cm across[241]Widespread in tropical areas[241]Commercially cultivatedAsian sweet dishes for texture[242]
Tricholoma matsutakeMatsutakeUp to 35 cm wide[243]Eurasia and northern North America in forests[243]Commercially harvested[244]Prized inJapanese cuisine[245] but can resembleInocybe pyriodora, a poisonous species with brown spores[243]
Tricholoma portentosumStreaked tricholomaUp to 11 cm wide[246]Europe and North America, coniferous woodland[247]Harvested wildEdible but resembles poisonous relatives[247]
Tricholoma terreumGrey knightUp to 7 cm wide;[248] resembles a poisonous species[249]Europe and North America[250][251]Edible but can causerhabdomyolysis if eaten in large quantities[252]
Tuber aestivumSummer truffleUp to 10 cm wide[253]France, Italy and Spain[253]Commercially harvested[253]
Tuber borchiiBianchetto truffleCommercially cultivated (experimental)[254]
Tuber melanosporumBlack truffleUp to 10 cm wide[255]Europe[256]Commercially cultivated[257]Choice[257]
Ustilago maydisCorn smutPathogens of cerealsHarvested wildConsidered a delicacy in Mexico; used as fillings in quesadillas, tacos and soups[258]
Verpa bohemicaWrinkled thimble-capUp to 4 cm wide[259]North America and Eurasia[259][260]Edible cooked, initially only in small portions;[261] contains a toxin similar to gyromitrin[262]
Volvariella bombycinaSilky rosegill[263]Pale cap, up to 20 cm wide[263]Widespread but uncommon[264]Commercially cultivatedEdible[264]
Volvariella volvaceaPaddy straw mushroom or straw mushroom[263]Can resemble death caps when immature,[265][266] when they are usually picked[267]Asia[268]Commercially cultivated[268]Edible with caution[263]

Cultivation

[edit]
Main article:Fungiculture
Mushroom and truffle production
2023, tonnes
 China47,143,126
 Japan462,158
 United States302,390
 Poland240,400
 Netherlands205,000
World50,010,109
Source:FAOSTAT of theUnited Nations[269]

Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with overtwenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries.[270] A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such aschanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular yet remains a challenge to cultivate.[citation needed] Some mushrooms, particularlymycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated.[citation needed]

In 2023, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to theFood and Agriculture Organization was 50 milliontonnes, led by China with 94% of the total (table).

Safety concerns

[edit]

Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw.[6] Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death.[6][7][8] Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned.[271]

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genusAmanita, particularlyA. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can causeallergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and causefood poisoning.[272] When eating any fungus for the first time, only a small quantity of one species should be consumed at a time, allowing for several hours to identify any potential allergic reaction.[273] Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers,accumulating pollutants andheavy metals, includingarsenic andiron, sometimes in lethal concentrations.[274] On the other hand, cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of certain slightly poisonous mushrooms (e.g. Morchellas) enough to be consumed.[193]

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to containpsychedelic drugs—the so-calledmagic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use areAmanita muscaria (the fly agaric) andPsilocybe cubensis, with the former containing alkaloids such asmuscimol and the latter predominatelypsilocybin.[citation needed] Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.[citation needed]

White mushrooms, boiled
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy117 kJ (28 kcal)
5.3 g
0.5 g
2.2 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
Thiamine (B1)
8%
0.1 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
23%
0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)
28%
4.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
44%
2.2 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
18 μg
Choline
4%
19.9 mg
Vitamin D
3%
21 IU
Vitamin K
0%
0 μg
MineralsQuantity
Calcium
0%
6 mg
Copper
56%
0.5 mg
Iron
9%
1.7 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
4%
0.1 mg
Phosphorus
7%
87 mg
Potassium
12%
356 mg
Selenium
24%
13.4 μg
Zinc
8%
0.9 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water91.1 g
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendations for adults,[275] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from theNational Academies.[276]

Nutrition

[edit]

Boiled white mushrooms are 91% water, 5%carbohydrates, 2%protein, and 0.3%fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled white mushrooms supply 28calories offood energy and rich contents (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofriboflavin,niacin, andpantothenic acid,copper, andselenium (23-56% DV), with a moderate content ofpotassium (12% DV, table).

Vitamin D

[edit]

The content ofvitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed tosunlight or purposely treated with artificialultraviolet light, even after harvesting and being processed into dry powder.[277][278]

NameChemical compositionStructure
Vitamin D1ergocalciferol withlumisterol, 1:1[279]
Vitamin D2ergocalciferol (made fromergosterol)Note double bond at top center.
Vitamin D3cholecalciferol (made from7-Dehydrocholesterol in the skin).

When exposed toUV light before or afterharvest, mushrooms convert their large concentrations ofergosterol into vitamin D2.[277][278] This is similar to thereaction in humans, wherevitamin D3 is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the U.S.Food and Drug Administration'sdaily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much.[277] Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D2.[278]

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms isergocalciferol, or vitamin D2. This is not the same as cholecalciferol, called vitamin D3, which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D2 has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used infood fortification andnutritional supplements, vitamin D3 is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.[citation needed]

Research

[edit]

A 2021 review ofprospective studies found that eating mushrooms did not significantly affectrisk factors for cardiovascular diseases.[280]

Uses

[edit]
A vendor inGuatemala with a variety of mushrooms for sale

The accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is required to ensure its edibility and to safeguard against poisoning.[6][7][8]

History

[edit]

The earliest evidence of consumption of mushrooms comes from 13,000-year-old archaeological sites inChile.[citation needed]Ötzi, themummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom in his belongings.[citation needed]Ancient Romans andGreeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes.Food tasters were employed byRoman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat.[281]The Forme of Cury, a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth.[282]

Culinary

[edit]
See also:List of mushroom dishes

A minimal amount of water should be used to clean specimens, ideally in the field.[273] Only select species can be safely eaten raw.[283]

Cooking

[edit]
Stuffed mushrooms prepared usingportobello mushrooms

Cooking mushrooms before consumption is often required, both to eliminatemycotoxins, including trace levels of toxichydrazines, and also to improve palatability and texture.[12] Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food.Chitin, a structural polymer in the cell walls of mushrooms, does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F), which is not reached in any normal cooking.[284][285] However, chitin connections may be broken down by cooking, allowing for easier digestion.[12]

Storage

[edit]
A collection of dried mushrooms

Mushrooms should be used as soon as possible, even if refrigerated (particularlyCoprinus species).[273] Mushrooms can be frozen, but they freeze best when cooked first.[286] Those that do not require cooking can also becanned,dried,pickled, orsalted.[287]

In traditional medicine

[edit]
Main article:Medicinal uses of fungi

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms orextracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments fordiseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved asdrugs ormedical treatments.[288] Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain oftraditional medicine[289] for which there is no directhigh-quality clinical evidence of efficacy.[290][291] (Since about the mid-20th century, some compounds found in fungi have been developed scientifically for medicine, e.g.antibiotics.)[292][293][294]

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as forpolysaccharide-K[295] orlentinan.[296] Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potentialadjuvants forradiation treatments andchemotherapy.[297][298]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Mattila P, Suonpää K, Piironen V (2000). "Functional properties of edible mushrooms".Nutrition.16 (7–8):694–6.doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00341-5.PMID 10906601.
  2. ^abOle G. Mouritsen; Klavs Styrbaek (2014).Umami: Unlocking the Secrets of the Fifth Taste. Columbia University Press. pp. 11, 52, 110.ISBN 978-0-231-16890-8.
  3. ^Paul Adams (24 November 2015)."Put the science of umami to work for you". Popular Science, Bonnier Corporation. Retrieved11 December 2015.
  4. ^Arora 1986, pp. 3, 310.
  5. ^Chang, Shu-Ting; Phillip G. Miles (1989).Mushrooms: cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect, and Environmental Impact.CRC Press. pp. 4–6.ISBN 978-0-8493-1043-0.
  6. ^abcde"Wild Mushroom Warning. Mushroom Poisoning: Don't Invite 'The Death Angel' to Dinner". US National Capital Poison Center, Washington, DC. 2017. Retrieved11 January 2017.
  7. ^abcBarbee G, Berry-Cabán C, Barry J, Borys D, Ward J, Salyer S (2009)."Analysis of mushroom exposures in Texas requiring hospitalization, 2005–2006".Journal of Medical Toxicology.5 (2):59–62.doi:10.1007/BF03161087.PMC 3550325.PMID 19415588.
  8. ^abcOsborne, Tegan (3 February 2016)."Deadly death cap mushrooms found in Canberra's inner-south as season begins early".ABC News. Retrieved2 May 2016.
  9. ^Arora 1986, pp. 19–20.
  10. ^"Much Room for Mushrooms: Morel, Truffle, Matsutake and Why They're So Expensive".MICHELIN Guide. 28 November 2017. Retrieved26 November 2025.
  11. ^Arora 1986, pp. 890–91.
  12. ^abcSayner, Adam (27 September 2021)."Can You Eat Mushroom Stems? How to Cook With Them".GroCycle. Retrieved2 October 2025.
  13. ^Kuo, M. (2007).100 Edible Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. p. 238.ISBN 978-0-472-03126-9.
  14. ^Davis, Sommer & Menge 2012, p. 220.
  15. ^Arora 1986, pp. 332–33.
  16. ^ab"Every Type Of Mushroom You Need To Know About".HuffPost. 24 March 2014. Retrieved27 November 2025.
  17. ^abc"What's the Difference Between Cremini and Portobello Mushrooms?".The Kitchn. Retrieved27 November 2025.
  18. ^abArora 1986, p. 319-320.
  19. ^abDavis, Sommer & Menge 2012, pp. 224–25.
  20. ^Meuninck, Jim (2017).Foraging Mushrooms Oregon: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Mushrooms.Falcon Guides. p. 107.ISBN 978-1-4930-2669-2.
  21. ^Roberts, Peter; Evans, Shelley (2011).The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 35.ISBN 978-1-908005-85-4.
  22. ^Miller Jr. & Miller 2006, p. 283.
  23. ^Meuninck, Jim (2017).Foraging Mushrooms Oregon: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Mushrooms.Falcon Guides. p. 107.ISBN 978-1-4930-2669-2.
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