The principal Indian philosophical schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox –āstika or nāstika – depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes theVedas are a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises ofBrahman andAtman; and whether the school believes in afterlife andDevas.[39][40]
InHindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in theGupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mīmāṃsā, it became obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century asNavya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
Sāmkhya is adualist philosophical tradition based on theSamkhyakarika (c. 320–540 CE),[45] while theYoga school was a closely related tradition emphasizingmeditation andliberation whose major text is theYoga sutras (c. 400 CE).[46] Elements of proto-Samkhya ideas can, however, be traced back to the period of the earlyUpanishads.[47] One of the main differences between the two closely related schools was that Yoga allowed for the existence of a God, while mostSāmkhya thinkers criticized this idea.[48]
Sāmkhyaepistemology accepts three of sixpramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge;pratyakṣa (perception),anumāṇa (inference) andśabda (word/testimony of reliable sources).[49] The school developed a complex theoretical exposition of the evolution ofconsciousness andmatter. Sāmkhya sources argue that the universe consists of two realities,puruṣa (consciousness) andprakṛti (matter).
As shown by theSāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (c. 14th century CE), Sāmkhya continued to develop throughout the medieval period.
The Nyāya school ofepistemology exploressources of knowledge (Pramāṇa) and is based on theNyāya Sūtras (circa 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE).[50]Nyāya holds that human suffering arises out of ignorance and liberation arises through correct knowledge. Therefore, they sought to investigate the sources of correct knowledge or epistemology.
Nyāya traditionally accepts fourPramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge –Pratyakṣa (perception),Anumāṇa (inference),Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) andŚabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[49]Nyāya also traditionally defended a form of philosophicalrealism.[51]
TheNyāya Sūtras was a very influential text in Indian philosophy, laying the foundations for classical Indian epistemological debates between the different philosophical schools. It includes, for example, the classic Hindu rejoinders against Buddhist not-self (anatta) arguments.[52] The work also famously argues against a creator God (Ishvara),[53] a debate which became central to Hinduism in the medieval period.
Vaiśeṣika is a naturalist school ofatomism, which accepts only two sources of knowledge, perception, and inference.[54] This philosophy held that the universe was reducible toparamāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called "small" (aṇu). Whatever we experience is a composite of these atoms.[55]
Vaiśeṣika organized all objects of experience into what they calledpadārthas (literally: 'the meaning of a word') which included six categories;dravya (substance),guṇa (quality),karma (activity),sāmānya (generality),viśeṣa (particularity) andsamavāya (inherence). LaterVaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana andŚivāditya) added one more categoryabhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined asartha (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined asbudhyapekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.[56]
Mīmāṃsā is a school of ritualorthopraxy and is known for itshermeneutical study and interpretation of theVedas.[57] For this tradition, the study ofdharma as ritual and social duty was paramount. They also held that the Vedas were "eternal, authorless, [and] infallible" and that Vedic injunctions andmantras in rituals are prescriptive actions of primary importance.[57] Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories ofphilology and thephilosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.[58] They primarily held that the purpose of language was to correctlyprescribe proper actions, rituals, and correctdharma (duty or virtue).[59] Mīmāṃsā is also mainly atheistic, holding that the evidence for the existence of God is insufficient and that the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the names, mantras and their power.[60]
A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is theMīmāṃsā Sūtra ofJaimini and major Mīmāṃsā scholars includePrabhākara (c. 7th century) andKumārila Bhaṭṭa (fl. roughly 700). The Mīmāṃsā school strongly influencedVedānta, which was also known asUttara-Mīmāṃsā; however, while Mīmāṃsā emphasizedkarmakāṇḍa, or the study of ritual actions, using the four earlyVedas, the Vedānta schools emphasizedjñanakāṇḍa, the study of knowledge, using the later parts of Vedas like theUpaniṣads.[57]
The central concern for these schools is the nature of and the relationship betweenBrahman (ultimate reality, universal consciousness),Ātman (individual soul) andPrakriti (empirical world).
While the classical enumeration of Indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools, there are other schools that are sometimes seen as orthodox. These include:[41]
The nāstika or heterodox schools are associated with the non-VedicŚramaṇic traditions that existed in India since before the 6th century BCE.[63] TheŚramaṇa movement gave rise to a diverse range of non-Vedic ideas, ranging from accepting or denying the concepts ofatman, atomism, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, extreme asceticism, strictahimsa (non-violence) andvegetarianism.[64] Notable philosophies that arose fromŚramaṇic movement wereJainism,early Buddhism,Cārvāka,Ajñana, andĀjīvika.[65]
Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems ofmetaphysics,reality,cosmology,ontology,epistemology, anddivinity.Jainism is essentially atranstheistic religion of ancient India.[66]: 182 It continues the ancientŚramaṇa tradition, which co-existed with theVedic tradition since ancient times.[67][68] The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include amind-body dualism, denial of acreative andomnipotent God,karma, aneternal and uncreated universe,non-violence, the theory of themultiple facets of truth, and morality based onliberation of thesoul. Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of the bondage and the means to achieve liberation.[69]It has often been described as anascetic movement for its strong emphasis on self-control, austerities, and renunciation.[70] It has also been called a model of philosophicalliberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.[71] Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of the soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions, and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation.[72]
The contribution of the Jains in the development of Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts likeAhimsa,Karma,Moksa,Samsara, and the like are common with otherIndian religions likeHinduism andBuddhism in various forms.[73] While Jainism traces its philosophy from teachings ofMahavira and otherTirthankaras, various Jain philosophers fromKundakunda andUmasvati in ancient times toYasovijaya andShrimad Rajchandra in recent times have contributed to Indian philosophical discourse in uniquely Jain ways.
Cārvāka or Lokāyata was anatheistic philosophy ofscepticism andmaterialism, who rejected theVedas and all associated supernatural doctrines.[74] Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed the Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology.[75] They declared the Vedas to be incoherent rhapsodies invented by humans whose only usefulness was to provide a livelihood to priests.[76]
Likewise, they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking the concept ofliberation,reincarnation, and accumulation ofmerit or demerit through karma.[77] They believed the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools".[75] Cārvākaepistemology holds perception as the primary source of knowledge while rejecting inference which can be invalid.[78] The primary texts ofCārvāka, like theBarhaspatya sutras (c. 600 BCE) have been lost.[79]
Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Hindu Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.[81] The Ājīvika school is known for itsNiyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.[81][82] Ājīvika considered thekarma doctrine as a fallacy.[83] Ājīvikas were atheists[84] and rejected the authority of theVedas, but they believed that in every living being is anātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.[85][86]
Ajñana was a Śramaṇa school of radical Indian skepticism and a rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions;[87] and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were seen as sophists who specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa (fl. c. 800), the author of the skeptical work entitledTattvopaplavasiṃha ("The Lion that Devours All Categories"/"The Upsetting of All Principles"), has been seen as an important Ajñana philosopher.[88]
The BuddhistNalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200.Monks debating atSera monastery, Tibet, 2013
Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought ofGautama Buddha (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is preserved in theearly Buddhist texts. It generally refers to the philosophical investigations that developed among variousBuddhist schools in India and later spread throughout Asia through theSilk Road. Buddhist thought is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It is the dominant philosophical tradition inTibet and Southeast Asian countries likeSri Lanka andBurma.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.Mahayana philosophers such asNagarjuna andVasubandhu developed the theories ofShunyata (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology ortranscendental idealism.[91] TheDignāga (c. 480–540) school ofPramāṇa promoted a complex form ofepistemology andBuddhist logic. This tradition contributed to what has been called an "epistemological turn" in Indian philosophy.[92] Through the work ofDharmakirti, this tradition of Buddhist logic has become the major epistemological system used inTibetan Buddhist philosophy and debate.[93]
The modern period saw the rise ofBuddhist modernism andHumanistic Buddhism under Western influences and the development ofWestern Buddhism with influences from modern psychology and Western philosophy. Important exponents of Buddhist modernism includeAnagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convertHenry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernistsTaixu (1890–1947) andYin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholarD.T. Suzuki, and the TibetanGendün Chöphel (1903–1951). Buddhist modernism refers to "forms of Buddhism that have emerged out of engagement with the dominant cultural and intellectual forces of modernity."[94] Forces which influenced modernists likeDhammapala and Yin Shun included Enlightenment values and Western science. ANeo-Buddhist movement was founded by the influential IndianDalit leaderB. R. Ambedkar in the 1950s who emphasized social and political reform.[95]
Sikhism is an Indian religion developed byGuru Nanak (1469–1539) in thePunjab region during theMughal Era.[citation needed] Their main sacred text is theGuru Granth Sahib. The fundamental beliefs include constant spiritual meditation ofGod's name, being guided by the Guru instead of yielding to capriciousness, living a householder's life instead of monasticism, truthful action todharma (righteousness, moral duty), equality of all human beings, and believing in God's grace.[97][98] Key concepts includeSimran,Seva, theThree Pillars of Sikhism, and theFive Thieves.
In response tocolonialism and their contact withWestern philosophy, 19th-century Indians developed new ways of thinking now termedNeo-Vedanta and Hindu modernism. Their ideas focused on the universality of Indian philosophy (particularly Vedanta) and the unity of different religions. It was during this period that Hindu modernists presented a single idealized and united "Hinduism." exemplified by the philosophy ofAdvaita Vedanta.[99] They were also influenced by Western ideas.[100] The first of these movements was that of theBrahmo Samaj ofRam Mohan Roy (1772–1833).[101]Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) was very influential in developing theHindu reform movements and in bringing the worldview to the West.[102] Through the work of Indians like Vivekananda as well as westerners such as the proponents of theTheosophical society, modern Hindu thought also influenced western culture.[103]
East Asian philosophical thought began inAncient China, andChinese philosophy begins during theWestern Zhou dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "Hundred Schools of Thought" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).[105][106] This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major Chinese philosophical schools (Confucianism,Legalism, andDaoism) as well as numerous less influential schools (Mohism,School of Names,School of Yin Yang). These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political, and ethical theories which, along withChinese Buddhism, had a direct influence on the rest ofthe East Asian cultural sphere. They are deeply rooted in the cycle of the seasons, part of a larger cycle of existence.[107] Buddhism began arriving in China during theHan dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), through agradual Silk road transmission and gradually developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen).
Confucianism (孔教,Kǒngjiào — "Confucius' doctrine"), also known as "Ruism" (Rújiào — "doctrine of the scholars"), is a Chinese philosophical system with ritual, moral, and religious applications.[108] The tradition developed around the teachings ofConfucius (Kǒng Fūzǐ, 孔夫子, "Master Kong", 551–479 BCE) who saw himself as transmitting the values and theology of the ancestors before him.[109] Other influential classical Confucian philosophers includeMencius andXun Kuang who famously disagreed on the innate moral nature of humans.
Confucianism focuses on humanistic values like familial and social harmony,filial piety (孝,xiào),Rén (仁, "benevolence" or "humaneness") andLǐ (禮/礼) which is a system of ritual norms that determines how a person should act to be in harmony with the law of Heaven. Confucianism traditionally holds that these values are based on the transcendent principle known asHeaven (Tiān 天), and also includes the belief in spirits or gods (shén).[110]
Legalism (法家，pinyin:Fǎjiā; school of "methods" or "standards")[112] was a philosophical tradition which focused on laws, realpolitik, and bureaucratic management.[113] Largely ignoringmorality or idealized views of how society should be, they focused on the pragmaticgovernment through the power of theautocrat andstate. Their goal was to achieve increased order, security, and stability.[114] They were initially influenced by Mohist ideas.[115] A key figure of this school was administrator and political philosopherShen Buhai (c. 400–337 BCE).[116] Another central figure,Shang Yang (390–338 BCE), was a leading statesman and reformer who transformed theQin state into the dominant power that conquered the rest of China in 221 BCE.[117] Shen's successorHan Fei (c. 280–233 BCE) synthesized the thought of the other Legalists in hiseponymous text, theHan Feizi, one of the most influential Legalist texts which was used by successive Chinese statesmen and rulers as a guide for statesmanship and bureaucratic organization of the imperial state.[118][119]
Mohism (墨家，Mòjiā; "School of Mo"), was founded byMozi (c. 470–391 BCE) and his students. It was a major school of thought and rival of Confucianism and Taoism during theSpring and Autumn andWarring States periods (c. 770–221 BCE). The main text of the school is theMozi (book). The administrative thought of Mohism was later absorbed by Legalism, their ethics absorbed into Confucianism and its books were also merged into theTaoist canon, as Mohism all but disappeared as an independent school after theQin dynasty era.
Mohism is best known for the idea of "impartial care" (Chinese: 兼愛;pinyin:jiān ài; literally: "inclusive love/care").[120] According to Master Mo, persons should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to them. Mo also advocated impartialmeritocracy in government which should be based on talent, not blood relations. Mozi was against Confucian ritualism, instead emphasizingpragmatic survival through farming,fortification, andstatecraft. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize the general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in theWill of Heaven, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallelsutilitarianism.
Taoism (or Daoism) is a term for various philosophies and religious systems that emphasize harmony with theTao (Chinese: 道;pinyin:Dào; literally: "the Way") which is seen as the principle which is the source, pattern, and substance of everything that exists.[123] Taoism tends to emphasize virtues such aswu wei (effortless action),ziran (naturalness),pu (simplicity), and spontaneity while placing less emphasis on norms and ritual (as opposed to Confucianism). Theattainment of immortality through external alchemy (waidan) and internal alchemy (neidan) was an important goal for many Taoists historically.[124]
Early forms of Taoism developed in the 4th century BCE, influenced by the cosmological theories of theSchool of Naturalists and theI Ching. The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang was another philosophical school that synthesized the concepts ofyin-yang and theFive Elements;Zou Yan is considered the founder.[125]
TheDao De Jing (Tao-Te-Ching, c. 4th century BCE), traditionally attributed toLaozi, and theNan Hua Jing (Zhuang Zi) are considered the key texts of the tradition.[126] The first organized form of Taoism, theTianshi (Celestial Masters') school arose in the 2nd century CE.Xuanxue ("deep learning", also "Neo-Taoism") was a major philosophical movement influenced by Confucian scholarship, which focused on the interpretation of theYijing,Daodejing, andZhuangzi and which flourished during the third to sixth centuries CE.[127] The most important philosophers of this movement wereHe Yan,Wang Bi, theSeven Sages of the Bamboo Grove,Ge Hong, andGuo Xiang.[128] Thinkers like He Yan and Wang Bi focused on the deep nature of Tao, which they saw as being best exemplified by the term "Wu" (nothingness, non-being, negativity).[129]
Modern Chinese thought is generally seen as being rooted in Classical Confucianism (Jingxue), Neo-Confucianism (Lixue), Buddhism, Daoism, andXixue ("Western Learning" which arose during the lateMing dynasty).[132]
TheOpium war of 1839–42 saw the beginning of Western and Japanese invasions and exploitation of China which was humiliating to Chinese thinkers. The late 19th and early 20th century saw Chinese thinkers such asZhang Zhidong looking to Western practical knowledge as a way to preserve traditional Chinese culture, a doctrine that he defined as "Chinese Learning as Substance and Western Learning as Function" (Zhongti Xiyong).[133]
The traditionalists meanwhile sought to revive and fortify traditional Chinese philosophical schools. Chinese Buddhist thought was promoted by thinkers like Yang Rensan and Ou-Yang Jingwu[134] while another influential movement isNew Confucianism (Chinese: 新儒家;pinyin:xīn rú jiā). New Confucianism is a traditionalist revival of Confucian thought in China beginning in the 20th-centuryRepublican China which is also associated withNew Conservatism. Key New Confucians of the first generation areXiong Shili andFung Youlan.[135] The second generation (1950–1979) include individuals likeTang Junyi,Mou Zongsan, andXu Fuguan, all three students of Xiong Shili. Together withZhang Junmai, the second generation published theNew Confucian Manifesto in 1958.
Fukuzawa Yukichi (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker
Modern Japanese thought is strongly influenced by Western science and philosophy. Japan's rapid modernization was partly aided by the early study of western science (known asRangaku) during theEdo period (1603–1868). Another intellectual movement during the Edo period wasKokugaku (national study), which sought to focus on the study of ancient Japanese thought, classic texts, and culture over and against foreign Chinese and Buddhist cultures.[136] A key figure of this movement isMotoori Norinaga (1730–1801), who argued that the essence of classic Japanese literature and culture was a sense calledmono no aware ("sorrow at evanescence").[137]
Juche, usually translated as "self-reliance", is the official politicalideology ofNorth Korea, described by the regime asKim Il-Sung's "original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought".[138] The idea states that an individual is "the master of his destiny"[139] and that the North Korean masses are to act as the "masters of the revolution and construction".[139]
In the modern era, there have been many attempts to integrate Western and Eastern philosophical traditions.
Arthur Schopenhauer developed a philosophy that was essentially a synthesis ofHinduism with Western thought. He anticipated that theUpanishads (primaryHindu scriptures) would have a much greater influence in the West than they have had. However, Schopenhauer was working with heavily flawed early translations (and sometimes second-degree translations), and many feel that he may not necessarily have accurately grasped the Eastern philosophies which interested him.[140]
Recent attempts to incorporate Western philosophy into Eastern thought include theKyoto School of philosophers, who combined thephenomenology ofHusserl with the insights ofZen Buddhism.Watsuji Tetsurô, a 20th-centuryJapanese philosopher attempted to combine the works ofSøren Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger with Eastern philosophies. Some have claimed that there is also a definite eastern element withinHeidegger's philosophy.[141] For the most part, this is not made explicit within Heidegger's philosophy, apart from in the dialogue between a Japanese and inquirer. Heidegger did spend time attempting to translate the Tao Te Ching into German, working with his Chinese student Paul Hsaio. It has also been claimed that much of Heidegger's later philosophy, particularly the sacredness of Being, bears a distinct similarity to Taoist ideas. There are clear parallels between Heidegger and the work of Kyoto School, and ultimately, it may be read that Heidegger's philosophy is an attempt to 'turn eastwards' in response to the crisis in Western civilization. However, this is only an interpretation.
The 20th-centuryHinduguruSri Aurobindo was influenced byGerman Idealism and hisintegral yoga is regarded as a synthesis of Eastern and Western thought. The GermanphenomenologistJean Gebser's writings on the history ofconsciousness referred to a new planetary consciousness that would bridge this gap. Followers of these two authors are often grouped together under the term Integral thought.
Following theXinhai Revolution in 1911 and the end of theQing dynasty, theMay Fourth Movement sought to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China (such as the old civil service system). There were two major philosophical trends during this period. One was anti-traditional and promoted Western learning and ideas. A key figure of this anti-traditional current wasYan Fu (1853–1921) who translated various Western philosophical works including Smith's TheWealth of Nations and Mill'sOn Liberty.[142] There were also attempts to incorporate Western ideas ofdemocracy, andrepublicanism into Chinese political philosophy, notably bySun Yat-Sen (1866–1925) at the beginning of the 20th century. Another influential modern Chinese philosopher wasHu Shih, who was a student ofJohn Dewey at Columbia University and who promoted a form of pragmatism.
The influence ofMarxism on modern Chinese political thought is vast, especially through the work ofMao Zedong, the most famous thinker ofChinese Marxist Philosophy. Maoism is aChinese Marxist philosophy based on the teachings of the 20th-centuryChinese Communist Party revolutionary leaderMao Zedong. It is based partially on earlier theories by Marx and Lenin, but rejects the urbanproletariat andLeninist emphasis on heavy industrialization in favor of a revolution supported by the peasantry, and a decentralized agrarian economy based on many collectively worked farms. The current government of thePeople's Republic of China continues to espouse a pragmatic form ofsocialism asits official party ideology which it callsSocialism with Chinese characteristics. When the Chinese Communist Partytook over the reign, previous schools of thought such as Taoism and Confucianism (exceptLegalism) were denounced as backward, and later purged during the violence of theCultural Revolution which saw many Taoist and Buddhist temples and institutions destroyed.
Swiss psychologistCarl Jung was deeply influenced by theI Ching (Book of Changes), an ancient Chinese text that dates back to the Bronze AgeShang dynasty (c. 1700–1050 BCE). It uses a system of Yin and Yang, which it places into hexagrams for the purposes of divination. Carl Jung's idea ofsynchronicity moves towards an Oriental view ofcausality, as he states in the foreword to Richard Wilhelm's translation of theI Ching.[143] He explains that this Chinese view of the world is based not on science as the West knows it, but on chance.
According to the British philosopher Victoria S. Harrison, the category of "Eastern philosophy", and similarly "Asian philosophy" and "Oriental philosophy" is a product of 19th-century Western scholarship and did not exist in East Asia or India. This is because in Asia there is no single unified philosophical tradition with a single root, but various autonomous traditions that have come into contact with each other over time.[144]
SomeEurocentric thinkers claim that philosophy as such is only characteristic of Western cultures. The German philosopherMartin Heidegger is reported to have said that only Greek and German languages are suitable for philosophizing.[145] It is still commonplace in Western universities to teach only Western philosophy and to ignore Asian philosophy altogether, or consider only newer Western-influenced Asian thought proper "philosophy". Carine Defoort, herself a specialist in Chinese thought, has offered support for such a "family" view of philosophy,[146] whileRein Raud has presented an argument[147] against it and offered a more flexibledefinition of philosophy that would include both Western and Asian thought on equal terms. In response, Ouyang Min argues that philosophy proper is a Western cultural practice and essentially different fromzhexue, which is what the Chinese have,[148] even thoughzhexue (originallytetsugaku) is actually a neologism coined in 1873 byNishi Amane for describing Western philosophy as opposed to traditional Asian thought.[149]
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^Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320–467 CE)."
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^Joel Diederik Beversluis (2000) In:Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality, New World Library: Novato, CAISBN1-57731-121-3 Originating on the Indian sub-continent, Jainism is one of the oldest religion of its homeland and indeed the world, having pre-historic origins before 3000 BC and the propagation of Indo-Aryan culture.... p. 81
^"The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism".A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. The pew foundation. 18 December 2012.Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved31 March 2013.
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^Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-0503-3, pp. 146–147
^Maas, Philipp A. (2006).Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert. Aachen: Shaker.ISBN3-8322-4987-7.
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^Roy Perrett (2007), Samkhya-Yoga Ethics, Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (Editors: Purusottama Bilimoria et al), Volume 1,ISBN978-0-7546-3301-3, p. 151
^abJohn A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-3067-5, p. 238
^Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1-898723-94-3, p. 129
^Oliver Leaman (2006), Nyaya, inEncyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-86253-0, pp. 405–407
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