Dravidian architecture, or theSouthern Indian temple style, is an architectural idiom inHindu temple architecture that emerged fromSouthern India, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century.
In contrast with North Indian temple styles, Dravidian architecture uses shorter and more pyramidal towers, calledvimana, over thegarbhagriha or sanctuary, where the north has taller towers, usually curving inwards as they rise, calledshikharas. Larger modern Dravidian style temples, however, include one or more highgopura or gatehouse entrances to the compound as their dominating feature; large temples have several dwarfing the vimana, although these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features, such as thedvarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple andgoshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of thegarbhagriha.
Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in early texts onvastu shastra orHindu temple architecture, the majority of existing structures are in theSouthern Indian states ofAndhra Pradesh,Karnataka,Kerala,Tamil Nadu,Telangana, some parts ofMaharashtra,Odisha andSri Lanka.[1][2] Various kingdoms and empires such as theSatavahanas, theVakatakas of Vidarbha, theCholas, theCheras, theKakatiyas, theReddis, thePandyas, thePallavas, theGangas, theKadambas, theRashtrakutas, theChalukyas, theHoysalas andVijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture.
Mayamata andManasara shilpa texts, which are estimated to have been in circulation by 5th to 7th century CE, is a guidebook on Dravidian style ofvastu shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique.[3][4]Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India.[3][5] In north India,Brihat-samhita byVarāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction ofNagara style of Hindu temples.[6][7][8] Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are non-vedic in origin[9] and have been dated either as post-vedic texts[10] or as pre-vedic compositions.[11] TheAgamas are a collection ofTamil andSanskritscriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation ofmurti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[12]
Chola style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed:[13]
Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank called theKalyani orPushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.[13]
InSouthern India seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times:
From 300 BCE to 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of theearly Chola,Chera and thePandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deitiesVishnu,Kartikeya,Shiva, andAmman . Several of these have been unearthed nearAdichanallur,Kaveripoompuharpattinam andMahabalipuram, and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in various poems ofSangam literature. There are 3 temples which date around 5 CE to 5 BCE, TheSrirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple which has inscriptions dating around 100 BCE to 100 CE.[16] Hence, "making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India". Another such temple is theSubrahmanya Temple, Saluvankuppam, unearthed in 2005, consists of three layers. The lowest layer, consisting of a brick shrine, is one of the oldest of its kind in South India, and is the oldest shrine found dedicated to Murukan. It is one of only two brick shrine pre Pallava Hindu temples to be found in the state, the other being theVeetrirundha Perumal Temple at Veppathur dedicated toLord Vishnu. The dynasties of early medievalTamilakkam expanded and erected structural additions to many of these brick shrines. Sculptures of erotic art, nature and deities from theRanganathaswamy Temple andKallazhagar Temple date from the Sangam period.
ThePallavas ruled from 275 CE to 900 CE, and their greatest constructed accomplishments are the single rock temples inMahabalipuram and their capitalKanchipuram, now located inTamil Nadu.
The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cutGroup of Monuments at Mahabalipuram atMahabalipuram, a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, including theShore Temple. This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except the natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram inKanchipuram built byNarasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple.
Contrary to popular impression about the succeeding empire of the Cholas pioneering in building large temple complexes, it was the Pallavas who actually pioneered not only in making large temples after starting construction of rock cut temples without using mortar, bricks etc. Examples of such temples are the Thiruppadagam and Thiruooragam temples that have 28 and 35 feet (11 m) high images of Lord Vishnu in his manifestation as Pandavadhoothar and Trivikraman forms of himself. In comparison, the Siva Lingams in the Royal Temples of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapurams are 17 and 18 feet (5.5 m) high. Considering that the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava was the inspiration for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeeswara at Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were among the first emperors in India to build both large temple complexes and very large deities and idols Many ofVishnu temples atKanchi built by the great Pallava emperors and indeed their incomparable Rathas and the Arjuna's penance Bas Relief (also called descent of the Ganga) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The continuous Chola, Pallava and Pandiyan belt temples (along with those of the Adigaimans nearKarur andNamakkal) like theNarasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal, as well as theSathyamurthi Perumal Temple in Pudukottai uniformly represent the pinnacle of the South Indian Style of Architecture that surpasses any other form of architecture prevalent between the Deccan Plateau and Kanyakumari. In the Telugu country the style was more or less uniformly conforming to the South Indian or Dravidian idiom of architecture.
TheRashtrakutas who ruled theDeccan fromManyakheta, Karnataka in the period 753–973 CE built some of the finest Dravidian monuments atEllora (theKailasanatha temple), in the rock-cut architecture idiom, with a style showing influences from both north and south India. Some other fine monuments are the Jaina Narayana temple atPattadakal and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in Karnataka.
The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-dayMaharashtra. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple atEllora. The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures fromHindu mythology includingRavana,Shiva andParvathi while the ceilings have paintings.
These projects were commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from theDeccan. The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of theshikharas common to theNagara style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple atPattadakal in Karnataka.[18]
The BadamiChalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled fromBadami, Karnataka in the period 543–753 CE and spawned theVesara style calledBadami Chalukya Architecture. The finest examples of their art are seen inPattadakal,Aihole andBadami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in theMalaprabha basin.
The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in theMalaprabha basin inKarnataka.[19]
The rock-cut temples ofPattadakal, a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site,Badami,Aihole andMahakuta are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings atAjanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them.[20][21] This is the beginning ofChalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.
TheWestern Chalukyas also called the Kalyani Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas ruled the deccan from 973 to 1180 CE from their capitalKalyani in modern Karnataka and further refined the Chalukyan style, called theWestern Chalukya architecture. Over 50 temples exist in theKrishna River-Tungabhadradoab in central Karnataka. The Kasi Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and Mahadeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya architects.
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of architecture in theDeccan. Their architectural developments acted as a conceptual link between theBadami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and theHoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.[22][23] The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in theTungabhadra –Krishna Riverdoab region of present-dayGadag district in Karnataka.[24] Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present-day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.
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Kakatiya architecture was a notableVesara temple building architecture developed during the rule of theKakatiya dynasty (1163–1323 CE), in the region comprising present-dayTelangana andAndhra Pradesh states of India. The Kakatiya architecture is more significant inHanamakonda — their first capital andWarangal being their second capital.[25]: 128–140
Most of the Kakatiya architecture is influenced fromChalukya architecture. It is a fusion of Dravidian architecture andNagara Bhumija styles in whichsandbox technology is used to construct Vimana—horizontal stepped tower. There are hundreds of monuments in the core ofHanamakonda andWarangal of whichThousand Pillar Temple,Ramappa Temple,Ramappa Lake,Warangal Fort andKota Gullu are prominent.[25] Ramappa Temple, also known as the Rudreswara temple, is aUNESCO World Heritage Site located inMulugu.[26]
Srivilliputhur Andal temple Rajagopuram is said to have been built byPeriyalvar, the father-in-law of the Lord,[clarification needed] with a purse of gold that he won in debates held in the palace ofPandya King Vallabhadeva. The primary landmark ofSrivilliputtur is a 12-tiered tower structure dedicated to the Lord of Srivilliputtur, known as Vatapatrasayee. The tower of this temple rises 192 feet (59 m) high. Other significant temples of the Pandyas include theMeenakshi Temple inMadurai, which is the official symbol of theGovernment of Tamil Nadu.
The ImperialChola kings ruled from 848 CE to 1280 CE and includedRajaraja Chola I and his sonRajendra Chola who built temples such as the threeGreat Living Chola Temples (UNESCO World Heritage Site) and theKampaheswarar Temple at Thirubuvanam.
TheCholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first kingVijayalaya Chola after whom the eclectic chain of Vijayalaya Chozhisvaram temple near Narttamalai exists. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions.
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius ofAditya IParantaka I,Sundara Chola,Rajaraja Chola and his sonRajendra Chola I. Rajendra Chola 1 built the Rajaraja Temple at Thanjur after his own name. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. He also proclaimed himself as Gangaikonda. In a small portion of the Kaveri belt between Tiruchy-Tanjore-Kumbakonam, at the height of their power, the Cholas have left over 2300 temples, with the Tiruchy-Thanjavur belt itself boasting of more than 1500 temples. The magnificentSiva temple of Thanjavur built by Raja Raja I in 1009 as well as theBrihadisvara Temple ofGangaikonda Cholapuram, completed around 1030, are both fitting memorials to the material and military achievements of the time of the two Chola emperors. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, the Tanjore Brihadisvara is at the apex of South Indian architecture.[27] In fact, two succeeding Chola kings Raja Raja II and Kulothunga III built theAiravatesvara Temple atDarasuram and the Kampahareswarar Siva Temple at Tribhuvanam respectively, both temples being on the outskirts of Kumbakonam around 1160 CE and 1200 CE. All the four temples were built over a period of nearly 200 years reflecting the glory, prosperity and stability under theChola emperors.
Contrary to popular impression, the Chola emperors patronized and promoted construction of a large number of temples that were spread over most parts of the Chola empire. These include 40 of the 108 VaishnavaDivya Desams out of which 77 are found spread most of South India and others in Andhra and North India. In fact, the SriRanganathaswamy Temple inSrirangam, which is the biggest temple in India and theChidambaramNatarajar Temple (though originally built by the Pallavas but possibly seized from the Cholas of the pre-Christian era when they ruled from Kanchi) were two of the most important temples patronized and expanded by the Cholas and from the times of the second Chola King Aditya I, these two temples have been hailed in inscriptions as the tutelary deities of the Chola Kings.
Temple shrine on theKoneswaram temple promontory extremity and theKetheeswaram temple andMunneswaram temple compounds contained tall gopuram towers by Chola rule ofTrincomalee,Mannar,Puttalam andChidambaram's expansion that escalated the building of those syncretic latter styles of Dravidian architecture seen across the continent pictured.[30][31][32][33]
Of course, the twoBrihadisvara Temples at Thanjavur andGangaikonda Cholapuram as well as the other two Siva temples, namely theAiravatesvara Temple ofDarasuram and theSarabeswara (Shiva )Temple which is also popular as the Kampahareswarar Temple atThirubhuvanam, both on the outskirts ofKumbakonam were the royal temples of the Cholas to commemorate their innumerable conquests and subjugation of their rivals from other parts of South India, Deccan Ilangai orSri Lanka and the Narmada-Mahanadi-Gangetic belts. But the Chola emperors underlined their non-partisan approach to religious iconography and faith by treating the presiding deities of their other two peerless creations, namely theRanganathaswamy Temple dedicated to LordVishnu atSrirangam and theNataraja Temple atChidambaram which actually is home to the twin deities ofSiva andVishnu (as the reclining Govindarajar) to be their 'Kuladheivams' or tutelary (or family) deities. The Cholas also preferred to call only these two temples which home their tutelary or family deities asKoil or the 'Temple', which denotes the most important places of worship for them. The above-named temples are being proposed to be included among theUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites, which will elevate them to the exacting and exalting standards of theGreat Living Chola Temples.
The temple ofGangaikondacholapuram, the creation ofRajendra Chola I, was intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple atThanjavur and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.[34] This temple has a larger Siva linga than the one atThanjavur but the Vimana of this temple is smaller in height than theThanjavur vimana.
TheChola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such asVishnu and his consortLakshmi, and the Siva saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form ofNataraja the Divine Dancer.[35]
TheHoysala kings ruled southern India during the period (1100–1343 CE) from their capitalBelur and laterHalebidu in Karnataka and developed a unique idiom of architecture called theHoysala architecture in Karnataka state. The finest examples of their architecture are theChennakesava Temple inBelur,Hoysaleswara temple inHalebidu, and theKesava Temple inSomanathapura.
The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style,[36] shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described asKarnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida,[37] and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features.[38][39]
The whole ofSouth India was ruled byVijayanagara Empire from (1343–1565 CE), who built a number of temples and monuments in their hybrid style in their capitalVijayanagara in Karnataka. Their style was a combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous centuries. In addition, theYali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and ornate pillaredmanatapa are their unique contribution. KingKrishna Deva Raya and others built many famous temples all overSouth India in Vijayanagara Architecture style.
Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of theChalukya,Hoysala,Rashtrakuta,Pallava,Pandya andChola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.[40][41] Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornatepillaredKalyanamantapa (marriage hall),Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and theRayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open-air theatre of monuments at its capital atVijayanagara, a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site.[42]
In the 14th century the kings continued to buildVesara or Deccan style monuments but later incorporated dravida-stylegopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) ofBukka Raya I and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture.[43] The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work.[44] At Hampi, though theVitthala temple is the best example of their pillaredKalyanamantapa style, theHazara Ramaswamy temple is a modest but perfectly finished example.[45] A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty.[46] A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, theVitthala temple, took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.[47]
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The version of Dravidian architecture found inKerala in the far south-west is significantly different. Very large temples are rare, and sloping roofs with projectingeaves dominate the outline, often arranged in a number of tiers. As inBengal, this is an adaption to the heavymonsoon rainfall. There is usually a stone core below a timber superstructure. Thearchitecture of Kerala goes back to theChera dynasty in the 12th century, and a variety of ground plans have been used, including circular ones. The development of multi-building complexes came relatively late.[48]
The culture of Sri Lanka isrecognizable in architecture. The city ofJaffna was close toSouth India and the majority of the inhabitants of Jaffna have a Dravidian origin.[49] In former royal city ofNallur, there are architecturalruins of Jaffna kingdom.
From the 18th century, Dravidian architecture was heavily adopted by Tamil-speaking populations of Sri Lanka for the construction of Hindu religious sites.[50]
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![Mantri Manai, the remains of the minister's quarters of Jaffna Kingdom. It is built in a Euro-Dravidian style.[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.m.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMantri_Manai.JPG)
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