Crataegus (/krəˈtiːɡəs/),[2] commonly calledhawthorn,quickthorn,[3]thornapple,[4]May-tree,[5]whitethorn,[5]Mayflower orhawberry, is agenus of several hundred species ofshrubs and trees in the familyRosaceae,[6]native totemperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. The name "hawthorn" was originally applied to the species native to northern Europe, especially thecommon hawthornC. monogyna, and the unmodified name is often so used in Britain and Ireland. The name is now also applied to the entire genus and to the related Asian genusRhaphiolepis.
Crataegus species areshrubs or small trees, mostly growing to 5–15 m (15–50 ft) tall,[7] with small fruit and (usually) thorny branches. The most common type ofbark is smooth grey in young individuals, developing shallow longitudinal fissures with narrow ridges in older trees. Thethorns are sharp-tipped branches that arise either from other branches or from the trunk, and are typically 1–3 cm (1⁄2–1 in) long (recorded as up to11.5 cm or4+1⁄2 in in one case[7]). The leaves grow spirally arranged onlong shoots, and in clusters onspur shoots on the branches or twigs. The leaves of most species have lobed or serrated margins and are somewhat variable in shape. Flowers are five-petalled and grow in flat-topped clusters and are most typically white, although they can also be pale pink or occasionally scarlet in colour.[8] The fruit, sometimes known as a "haw", appearsberry-like but is structurally polypyrenous, with from one to fivepyrenes[9] that resemble the "stones" ofplums,peaches, etc., which aredrupaceous fruit in the samesubfamily.
The number of species in the genus depends on taxonomic interpretation. Some botanists in the past recognised 1000 or more species,[10] many of which areapomictic microspecies. A reasonable number is estimated to be 200 species.[7] The genus likely first appeared in theEocene, with the ancestral area likely being Eastern North America and in Europe, which at that time remained closely linked due to the North AtlanticLand Bridge. The earliest known leaves of the genus from the Eocene of North America, with the earliest leaves from Europe being from theOligocene.[11]
Crataegus punctata – dotted hawthorn, white hawthorn: sometimes claimed as the state flower ofMissouri,[18] though the legislation does not specify a species[19]
The generic epithet,Crataegus, is derived from the Greekkratos "strength" because of the great strength of the wood andakis "sharp", referring to the thorns of some species.[21] The namehaw, originally anOld English term for hedge (from theAnglo-Saxon termhaguthorn, "a fence with thorns"),[22] also applies to the fruit.[7]
Hawthorns provide food and shelter for many species of birds andmammals, and theflowers are important for many nectar-feeding insects.[23] Hawthorns are also used as food plants by thelarvae of a large number ofLepidoptera species, such as the small eggar moth,E. lanestris.[24] Haws are important forwildlife in winter, particularlythrushes andwaxwings; these birds eat the haws and disperse theseeds in their droppings.[25]
Although it is commonly stated that hawthorns can be propagated by cutting, this is difficult to achieve with rootless stem pieces. Small plants or suckers are often transplanted from the wild. Seeds requirestratification and take one or two years to germinate.[26] Seed germination is improved if thepyrenes that contain the seed are subjected to extensive drying at room temperature, before stratification.[27] Uncommon forms can begrafted onto seedlings of other species.[26]
Crataegus monogyna 'Crimson Cloud' in Elko, Nevada
The "haws" or fruits of thecommon hawthorn,C. monogyna, are edible. In the United Kingdom, they are sometimes used to make ajelly orhomemade wine.[28] The leaves are edible, and if picked in spring when still young, are tender enough to be used in salads.[29] The young leaves and flower buds, which are also edible, are known as "bread and cheese" in rural England.[28] In the southern United States, fruits of three native species,C. aestivalis,C. opaca andC. rufula, are collectively known asmayhaws and are made into conserves and pies and fermented into wine.[7] TheKutenai people of northwestern North America used red and black hawthorn fruit for food.[citation needed]
OnManitoulin Island, Ontario, some red-fruited species are called hawberries. During colonisation, European settlers ate these fruits during the winter as the only remaining food supply. People born on the island are now called "haweaters".
In Mexico the fruit of manyCrataegus species are known astejocotes, but onlyC. mexicana appears to be cultivated for culinary use.[7] They are stuffed in thepiñatas broken during the traditional pre-Christmas celebration known asLas Posadas. They are also cooked with other fruits to prepare a Christmas punch. The mixture oftejocote paste, sugar and chili powder produces a popular Mexican candy calledrielitos, which is manufactured by several brands.[citation needed]
The fruits of the speciesC. pinnatifida (Chinese hawthorn), and particularly the large-fruitedC. pinnatifida var.major are cultivated.[7] They are tart, bright red and resemble smallcrabapple fruits. They are used to make many kinds of Chinese snacks, such astanghulu — coated in sugar syrup and skewered – andhaw flakes. The fruits, which are called 山楂shān zhā in Chinese, are also used to produce jams, jellies, juices, alcoholic beverages and other drinks; these could in turn be used in other dishes (for instance, many older recipes forCantonese sweet and sour sauce call forshānzhā jam). In South Korea, a liquor calledsansachun (산사춘) is made from the fruits.
In Iran, the fruits ofCrataegus (includingCrataegus azarolus var.aronia, as well as other species) are known aszâlzâlak and eaten raw as a snack, or made into a jam known by the same name.
The fruits of North America'sC. greggiana are made into preserves.[30]
A 2008Cochrane Collaborationmeta-analysis of previous studies concluded that evidence exists of "a significant benefit in symptom control and physiologic outcomes" for anextract of hawthorn used as anadjuvant in treatingchronic heart failure.[31] A 2010 review[32] concluded that "Crataegus [hawthorn] preparations hold significant potential as a useful remedy in the treatment ofcardiovascular disease". The review indicated the need for further study of the best dosages and concluded that although "many different theoretical interactions betweenCrataegus and orthodox medications have been postulated ... none have [yet] been substantiated."[32]
Several species of hawthorn have been used intraditional medicine. The products used are often derived fromC. monogyna,C. laevigata, or relatedCrataegus species, sometimes generally referred to as hawthorn without distinguishment.[7] Thedried fruits ofC. pinnatifida (calledshān zhā in Chinese) are used intraditional Chinese medicine, primarily as a digestive aid. A closely related species,C. cuneata (Japanese hawthorn, calledsanzashi in Japanese) is used in a similar manner. Other species (especiallyCrataegus laevigata) are used inherbal medicine where the plant is believed to strengthen cardiovascular function.[34]
TheKutenai people of northwestern North America usedblack hawthorn fruit (Kutenai language: kaⱡa; approximate pronunciation:kasha) for food, and red hawthorn fruit (Kutenai language: ⱡupⱡi; approximate pronunciation:shupshi) in traditional medicine.[35]
Many species and hybrids are used asornamental and street trees. The common hawthorn is extensively used in Europe as ahedge plant. During theBritish Agricultural Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, hawthorn saplings were mass propagated in nurseries to create the new field boundaries required by theInclosure Acts.[39] Severalcultivars of the Midland hawthornC. laevigata have been selected for their pink or red flowers. Hawthorns are among the trees most recommended for water conservation landscapes.[citation needed]
Hawthorn can be used as arootstock in the practice of grafting. It is graft-compatible withMespilus (medlar) and with pear,[40] and makes a hardier rootstock thanquince, but the thornysuckering habit of the hawthorn can be problematic.[7]
Seedlings ofCrataegus monogyna have been used to graft multiple species on the same trunk, such aspink hawthorn, pear tree and medlar, the result being trees which give pink and white flowers in May and fruits during the summer. "Chipbudding" has also been performed on hawthorn trunks to have branches of several varieties on the same tree. Such trees can be seen inVigo, Spain, and in the northwest of France (mainly inBrittany).[citation needed]
The wood of someCrataegus species is hard and resistant to rot.[22] In rural North America, it was prized for use as tool handles and fence posts.[6][22]First Nations people of western Canada used the thorns for durablefish hooks and minor skinsurgeries.[22]
TheScots saying "Ne'er cast a cloot til Mey's oot" conveys a warning not to shed any (clothes) before the summer has fully arrived and the mayflowers (hawthorn blossoms) are in full bloom.[42][43]
The custom of employing the flowering branches for decorative purposes on 1 May is of very early origin, but since the adoption of theGregorian calendar in 1752, the tree has rarely been in full bloom in England before the second week of that month. In the Scottish Highlands, the flowers may be seen as late as the middle of June. The hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope, and its branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck the altar ofHymenaios. The supposition that the tree was the source of Jesus'scrown of thorns doubtless gave rise to the tradition among the French peasantry (current as late as 1911) that it utters groans and cries onGood Friday, and probably also to the old popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that ill luck attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches ofGlastonbury thorn (C. monogyna 'Biflora',[7] sometimes calledC. oxyacantha var.praecox), which flowers both in December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England, on account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff ofJoseph of Arimathea.[44]
Robert Graves, in his bookThe White Goddess,[5] traces and reinterprets many European legends and myths in which the whitethorn (hawthorn), also called the May-tree, is central.
Hawthorn trees demarcate a garden plot; according tolegend, they are strongly associated with thefairies.
It was once said to heal the broken heart. In Ireland, the red fruit is, or was, called the Johnny MacGorey or Magory.
Serbian folklore that spread across Balkan notes that hawthorn (Serbianглог orglog) is essential to killvampires, and stakes used for their slaying must be made from the wood of the thorn tree.[45]
InGaelic folklore, hawthorn (inScottish Gaelic,sgitheach and in Irish,sceach) 'marks the entrance to theotherworld' and is strongly associated with thefairies.[46] Lore has it that it is very unlucky to cut the tree at any time other than when it is in bloom; however, during this time, it is commonly cut and decorated as a May bush (seeBeltane).[47] This warning persists to modern times; folklorist Bob Curran has questioned whether the ill luck of theDeLorean Motor Company was associated with the destruction of a fairy thorn to make way for a production facility.[48]
The superstitious dread of harming hawthorn trees prevalent in Britain and Ireland may also be connected to an old belief that hawthorns, and more especially 'lone thorns' (self-seeded specimens standing in isolation from other trees) originate fromlightning orthunderbolts and give protection from lightning strikes.[49]
Hawthorn trees are often found besideclootie wells; at these types of holy wells, they are sometimes known as rag trees, for the strips of cloth which are tied to them as part of healing rituals.[50] 'When all fruit fails, welcome haws' was once a common expression in Ireland.
According to a medieval legend, theGlastonbury thorn,C. monogyna 'Biflora', which flowers twice annually, was supposed to havemiraculously grown from awalking stick planted byJoseph of Arimathea atGlastonbury in Somerset, England. The original tree was destroyed in the sixteenth century during theEnglish Reformation, but several cultivars have survived. Since the reign ofKing James I, it has been a Christmas custom to send a sprig of Glastonbury thorn flowers to theSovereign, which is used to decorate the royal family's dinner table.[51]
^I remember the kitchen as being large and airy. 1974,A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe, Collins, London
^Voss, E. G. 1985.Michigan Flora: A guide to the identification and occurrence of the native and naturalized seed-plants of the state. Part II: Dicots (Saururaceae–Cornaceae). Cranbrook Institute of Science andUniversity of Michigan Herbarium, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
^abcGraves, Robert.The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth, 1948, amended and enlarged 1966, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
^abcdefghijPhipps, J. B., O'Kennon, R. J., Lance, R. W. (2003).Hawthorns and medlars. Timber Press, Portland Oregon.ISBN0-88192-591-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Kalkman, C. (2004).Rosaceae.Kubitzki, K. (ed)Flowering Plants · Dicotyledons. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Vol. 6. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.doi:10.1007/978-3-662-07257-8_39.
^Roman A. Ufimov andTimothy A. Dickinson (2020). "Infrageneric nomenclature adjustments inCrataegus L. (Maleae, Rosaceae)".Phytologia.102 (3):177–199.
^Phipps, J. B.; Robertson, K. R.; Smith, P. G.; Rohrer, J. R. (1990), "A checklist of the subfamily Maloideae (Rosaceae)",Canadian Journal of Botany,68 (10):2209–2269,Bibcode:1990CaJB...68.2209P,doi:10.1139/b90-288
^abPhipps, J.B. (2015), "Crataegus", in L. Brouillet; K. Gandhi; C. L. Howard; H. Jeude; R. W. Kiger; J. B. Phipps; A. C. Pryor; H. H. Schmidt; J. L. Strother; J. L. Zarucchi (eds.),Flora of North America North of Mexico, vol. 9: Magnoliophyta: Picramniaceae to Rosaceae, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 491–643,ISBN978-0-19-534029-7
^Phipps, J. B. (2015),"Crataegus", in L. Brouillet; K. Gandhi; C. L. Howard; H. Jeude; R. W. Kiger; J. B. Phipps; A. C. Pryor; H. H. Schmidt; J. L. Strother; J. L. Zarucchi (eds.),Flora of North America North of Mexico, vol. 9: Magnoliophyta: Picramniaceae to Rosaceae, New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 491–643,ISBN978-0-19-534029-7 p. 491
^abcd"Black hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii)". Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, Government of British Columbia. 2019. Retrieved12 April 2019.
^abBailey, L. H.; Bailey, E. Z.; the staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. 1976.Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, New York.
^"Hawthorn". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. 2019. Retrieved12 April 2019.
^Dasgupta A, Kidd L, Poindexter BJ, Bick RJ (August 2010). "Interference of hawthorn on serum digoxin measurements by immunoassays and pharmacodynamic interaction with digoxin".Arch Pathol Lab Med.134 (8):1188–92.doi:10.5858/2009-0404-OA.1.PMID20670141.
^Asheghi, M. Sajad (1 March 2022). "Phenotypic Diversity of Crataegus orientalis subsp. szovitsii (Pojark.) K.I.Chr. Population in Markazi Province, Iran".Erwerbs-Obstbau.64 (1):69–74.doi:10.1007/s10341-021-00605-2.ISSN1439-0302.S2CID243803560.
^Monaghan, Patricia (11 March 2004).The Red-Haired Girl from the Bog: The Landscape of Celtic Myth and Spirit. New World Library. p. 67.ISBN978-1-57731-458-5.
^Hope, Alec Derwent,A Midsummer Eve's Dream: variations on a theme byWilliam Dunbar pub. The Viking Press, New York 1970.
^Healy, Elizabeth (2002)In Search of Ireland's Holy Wells. Dublin, Wolfhound PressISBN0-86327-865-5 pp. 56–7, 69, 81
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