In political contexts,comrade means a fellow party member. The political use was inspired by theFrench Revolution, after which it grew into aform of address between socialists and workers. Since theRussian Revolution, popular culture in theWest has often associated it withcommunism. As such, it can also be used as a reference toleftists, akin to "commie". In particular, the Russian wordтоварищ (tovarishch) may be used as a reference tocommunists.
The influence of the term in communism in the 20th century has led to someanarchists preferring the term "companion", a term that has been used inWestern Europe since the end of the19th century.
Upon abolishing the titles ofnobility in France, and the termsmonsieur andmadame (literally, "my lord" and "my lady"), the revolutionaries employed the termcitoyen for men andcitoyenne for women (both meaning "citizen") to refer to each other.[3] The deposed KingLouis XVI, for instance, was referred to asCitoyen LouisCapet to emphasize his loss of privilege.[4]
When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century,socialists elsewhere began to look for a similaregalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". InGerman, the wordKamerad had long been used as an affectionate form of address among people linked by some strong common interest, such as a sport, a college, a profession (notably as a soldier), or simply friendship.[5] The term was often used with political overtones in therevolutions of 1848, and was subsequently borrowed by French and English. In English, the first known use of the wordcomrade with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazineJustice.[6]
In the late 19th century, RussianMarxists and other leftist revolutionaries adopted the word "tovarisch" (Russian:товарищ) as a translation for the German termKamerad. Originally, "tovarisch" meant "business companion" or "travel (or other adventure) mate" deriving from theOld Turkictavar ishchi; abbreviatedtov., and related to the nounтовар (tovar, meaning "merchandise").[7][8] In socialist andlabour movements, it became a common form of address, as inTovarisch Plekhanov orTovarischChairman or simply asTovarisch (especially German)social democracy. After theRussian Revolution, translations of "tovarisch" spread globally amongcommunists, though the term "comrade" became closely associated with theSoviet Union specifically in the eyes of many.[9]
With the February Revolution of 1917, traditional forms of address common in Tsarist Russia would become deeply unpopular and were replaced by the more republican and egalitarian title of citizen. However, this would be overshadowed by the address of comrade due to the more revolutionary connotations. The term "citizen" did not seem sufficiently pro-revolutionary as many monarchists identified themselves as "Russian citizens and loyal subjects of the sovereign-Emperor". In contrast being called "comrade" implied a kind of revolutionary zeal and exceptionalism. Yet, it was widely used across society: socialists in the Provisional Government were known as "comrade ministers", policemen andCossacks were addressed as "comrades", and even rural witch-doctors became "comrade spirits".[10]
During therevolutionary period, once the Bolsheviks had taken power, they continued to use "comrade" to address or refer to people presumed to be sympathetic to the revolution and to the Soviet state, such as workers, members of theCommunist Party, and (for a time)Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. For everyone else, citizen was the preferred term; however, it could also serve as an insult, especially if the individual expected a more respectful address. For instance, the guards of Nicholas II deliberately called him "citizen Romanov" during his captivity. The anti-Bolshevik socialists, such as theSocialist Revolutionaries and theMensheviks, also addressed each other as "comrade", while theWhites mockingly, referred to their enemies as "the comrades".[9] As discontent with the Bolshevik regime grew, even within the Soviet camp, comrade could be seen as an insult. in one instance, a woman on a Petrograd tram, when addressed as "comrade", replied: "What's all this "comrade" talk? Take your "comrade" and go to hell!".[11]
By the mid-1920s, the addressTovarisch had become so widespread in theSoviet Union that it was used casually as titles like "Mister" or "Sir" in English. That use persisted until thedissolution of the Soviet Union. Still, the original meaning partly re-surfaced in some contexts: criminals and suspects were only addressed as "citizens" and not astovarischi, and expressly refusing to address someone astovarisch would generally be perceived as a hostile act or, during theStalin era, even as an accusation of being "Anti-Soviet".[12]
Currently, in theRussian Armed Forces,tovarisch is used as a mandatory and statutory form of address, always to be used when military personnel address one another. Senior officers referring to subordinates must call them either by their military rank and last name, or only their military rank withtovarisch being added before the rank. The reverse is also true, with subordinates referring to senior officers by military rank and the prefix oftovarisch, though subordinates do not call their superiors by last name. One example is "Comrade Senior Lieutenant" (товарищ старший лейтенант).[13]
InChinese, the translation ofcomrade is同志 (pinyin:tóng zhì), literally meaning "(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc." It was first introduced in the political sense bySun Yat-sen to refer to his followers.[citation needed] TheKuomintang (Nationalist Party), which was co-founded by Sun Yat-sen, has a long tradition of using this term to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Chang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."[14]
Nevertheless, the term was promoted most actively by theChinese Communist Party during its struggle for power. It was used both as a noun and as a title for basically anyone inmainland China after thePeople's Republic of China was founded. For example, women werenü tongzhi ("female comrade"), children werexiao tongzhi ("little comrade") and seniors werelao tongzhi ("old comrade"). However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of such daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Chinese Communist Party. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member astóng zhì is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.[citation needed]
At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other asTongzhi, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition,Tongzhi is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (e.g.,Comrade Mao Zedong,Comrade Deng Xiaoping).[citation needed]
In October 2016, theCentral Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a directive urging all 90 million party members to keep calling each other "comrades" instead of less egalitarian terms.[15][16] It is also in the regulations of theChinese Armed Forces as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "Comrade Colonel", or simply "comrade/s" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several servicepeople.)[17]
TheSAR territories of Hong Kong and Macau generally usetongzhi as a catch-all term to refer to members of theLGBT community; its use as a word for "comrade" has historically been uncommon due to both territories formerly being under foreign administrations. This definition oftongzhi is becoming increasingly popular among mainland Chinese youth and a growing number of older Chinese people have stopped usingtongzhi due to its new association with the LGBT community.[18]
Among poor residents of the country's segregatedtownships, it was also used to specifically denote members of militant youth organisations.[21] These radical activists ledconsumer boycotts, organised anti-apartheid rallies and demonstrations, and intimidated those suspected of having ties to the South African government or security forces.[21] In this particular context, the English titlecomrades was also used interchangeably with theXhosa termamabutho.[21]
TheBritish Union of Fascists used the word commonly to refer to members. Their marching song, set to the music of theHorst-Wessel-Lied began "Comrades, the voices". The writer, E.D. Randall, defended the usage of the word by stating that "comrades" "fittingly and completely expresses the ideal of unity in the service of a common cause".[27]
InKenya, the use of the word comrade is in a more traditional sense to mean "member". It is commonly used by trade unionists, political parties and University students as a form of solidarity and common identity. It features prominently in chant songs by University student leaders and popular youth culture as a term of endearment.[28]
InAlbanian, the wordshok (meaningfriend, fromLatinsocius) was used within communist circles. The female form isshoqe.
InEthiopia, theAmharic word for "comrade" is "Guade" written with ancientGeʽez script as "ጓድ". The word "Guade" trace its origin to the Amharic word of "Guadegna/ ጓደኛ" meaning " a friend". The word was in popular use after the 1974 revolution particularly by members of the socialist party to refer to another person of the similar political group, belongs to the same ideology, or similar style. The usage of the word is eroded since 1991 and it is limited to political party conventions or meetings. A rather the most popular variation of the word in the past and currently is "Guadochae/ ጓዶቼ" meaning "my friends" which is a humble way of address for a valued colleague or friend.
TheAzerbaijani word for comrade isYoldaş (literally "co-traveller").
TheBelarusian word for comrade isтаварыш (tavaryš), with the same origin as the Russian word. It is usually used only with a political or historical meaning in connection with the Communists.
TheBulgarian word for comrade isдругар (drugar), femaleдругарка (drugarka). It translates as friend or colleague. In Communist times, it was the general form of address, also used in reference to schoolteachers etc.
InCatalan, the word for comrade iscompany for males,companya for females. It is still in widespread use among communist and anarchist organisations, but it also occurs often in everyday speech to refer to neutral relationships such as classmates or flatmates with no political connotation.
InChinese, the word同志 (pinyin:Tóngzhì) is used. The meaning of the word refers to a like-minded person. It is, through usage, associated with Communism, however, it may be used as a friendly epithet between friends or colleagues, mostly of the older generation. It is still currently used inChinese state media to address topparty and state leaders such asGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist PartyXi Jinping as well as within thePeople’s Liberation Army to address soldiers and officers. In current usage, it is also used byLGBT people in China to refer to one another.[30]
TheCzech word for comrade issoudruh (m.) andsoudružka (f.). In 19th century Czech, it was a poetic word, meaning "fellow". As elsewhere in Europe, the term was originally introduced by the Czech Social Democrats and subsequently carried over to Czech Communists as well when these split off from the Social Democrats. After the Communist Party gained power in 1948, the word displaced all prior titles likepan,paní ("Mister", "Madam") and became the title used generally for everyone. Nowadays, it is used only in (actual or, more often, ironic) Communist context. After theVelvet Revolution, an attempt was made in theCzech Social Democratic Party to replacesoudruh withpřítel ("friend") as a form of an address, but it didn't catch on. A cognate to English word "comrade",kamarád, means "friend" in Czech. It is a very commonly used word and it has no political connotations. A cognate (now obsolete) to the Russian wordtovarishch,tovaryš, means "journeyman" in Czech and has no political connotations (compareTovaryšstvo Ježíšovo, lit. "Jesus's Journeymen").
TheDanish word iskammerat (pluralkammerater) which literally translates as "mate," or "buddy". It is normally used to refer to someone's childhood friend or friends, but can also be used interchangeably withven, which meansfriend.
TheEsperanto word for comrade iskamarado either in the sense of a friend or a political fellow-traveller. In the latter case, when used in writing, it is often abbreviated toK-do. It is the preferred form of address among members ofSennacieca Asocio Tutmonda. The wordsamideano, literally "same-thinker", usually refers to a fellow Esperantist.[32]
TheEstonian word isseltsimees which originally comes from GermanGeselle. Having initially a neutral meaning, the term was later adapted by local communists. Today it has an ironical meaning, referring to Soviet times.
TheFinnish word istoveri which literally translates as "companion". This has a heavy socialist connotation, but may sometimes be used in humorous manner. Mates in an institution like school, jail or hospital could also be addressed thus, but not in the army.
TheFrench word iscamarade. It is mainly used by communists and can apply to classmates or friends.
InGerman, the word isKamerad for a male, orKameradin for a female. The meaning is that of a fellow, a companion or an associate. SinceKamerad is the usual term for a fellow soldier in German military language, the word is associated with right-wing rather than left-wing groups. Communists and socialists, especially party members of theSED andSPD use the wordGenosse (fem.Genossin; i.e. "partner", in the sense of a fellow member of aco-operative) with the socialist association that "comrade" has in English.[33] Members of theNSDAP used the variantParteigenosse (lit. party-comrade).[34]
TheGreek word isσύντροφος (syntrophos, m.) andσυντρόφισσα (syntrophissa, f.), used by communists, socialists and other left-wing groups. Other meanings of this word are: mate, pal, friend, companion, even partner or associate etc.
TheHebrew equivalent isChaver (חבר), a word which can mean both "friend" and "member" (of a group or organization). During the time ofSocialist Zionist political and ideological dominance of the 1930s to the 1960s, the word in a sense similar to English "comrade" was in widespread use, in theKibbutz movement, theHistadrut trade unions, the driver-owned bus companies etc., though this implication is carried only when it is used as a title to precede a name, in which case it includes adefinite article (e.g.החבר סטאלין). At present, its political use is considered old-fashioned, mainly restricted to Israeli Communists; the same word exists also inYiddish, which is one possible origin of the colloquialAustralian wordcobber.) The HebrewChaver and the femaleChavera are still widely used in a non-political sense, as meaning simply "friend" (in certain contexts also meaning "boyfriend"/"girlfriend").
TheHungarian word for comrade iselvtárs;elv means "principle" or "tenet" whiletárs means "fellow". As theHungarian Working People's Party gradually gained power after theSecond World War, the word displaced all prior titles likeúr ("Mister") and became the title used generally for everyone except for people who were obviously not "tenet fellows" e.g. those who committedpolitical crime against the socialist state. After the democratic transition the word became obsolete and it is used derogatorily to address politicians on thepolitical left.
TheIcelandic word for comrade isfélagi, which is cognate to English “fellow”. It is used as a less intimate alternative tovinur (friend). It is also the word used for a "member" of club or association. When used as a title to precede a name (e.g.,félagi Tító orfélagi Dimitroff) it has a communist implication.
InIndonesian, the word iskamerad. In the early days of independence,Bung, meaning "brother", was commonly used as an egalitarian form of address for people of any status. The wordkawan (friend) is now also widely used among leftists.[35]
TheItalian word for comrade iscompagno (male) orcompagna (female), meaning "companion". This word is in widespread use among left-wing circles, including not just communists but also many socialists. The literal translation of the word comrade iscamerata, with the specific meaning of "comrade-in-arms" or "fellow soldier": it is used by nationalist and militarist right-wing groups. Using one word or the other is a quick way to announce one's political views.
TheJapanese word for comrade is同志 (dōshi), using the same Han characters as in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited to Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym同士, which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.
InKannada, the wordಗೆಳೆಯರೇ,ಗೆಳೆಯ (Geḷeẏa) is used among communist people's while addressing its people.
InKazakh, the translation of "tovarish" was similar to other Turkic translations,"жолдас"; "joldas"Kazakh pronunciation:[ʐɔɫdɑs] (literally "co-traveller", most often used referring to friends and spouses) was used.
InKorean, a good equivalent of the word would be동무 (tongmu) or동지 (tongji, senior comrade). Although the word was originally used by Korean people all over theKorean Peninsula, people living south of the38th Parallel began avoiding using the word after acommunist state was set up in the north. InNorth Korea, the wordtongmu replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". The word originally meant “friend”. On the other hand, the word동지 (tongji) is frequently used in North Korean state media to address senior state and party leaders such asKim Jong-un.
InKurdish, the wordHeval ("friend" or "companion on a long journey") is widely used among Kurdish political parties and organizations.
InLatvian, the word isbiedrs for males andbiedre orbiedrene for females.
InLithuanian, the word isdraugas for males anddraugė for females; both of which originally meant "friend".
InMacedonian, the word isдругар (drugar) for men andдругарка (drugarka) for women.
InMalay, the wordsKomrad,Kawan andSahabat are used among socialist organizations.
InMalayalam, the wordസഖാവ് (sakhavu) (meaning friend, ally, partner) is used among communist organisations while addressing fellow members. Due to the strong presence of the Communist Party of India in Kerala, the word is almost exclusively used to refer to a member of the party or to imply an association with communism.
InMexico, the word iscamarada andcompañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
InMongolian, the word isнөхөр (nökhör). It is still in use but less than before.
InNorwegian, the word iskamerat. It can be associated with communist usage, but more commonly refers simply to an associate, a co-worker (arbeidskamerat), or a classmate in school (klassekamerat orskolekamerat). In everyday use, the wordkamerat on its own is considered a masculine term, referring to boys/men. For girls/women, the termvenninne (female form ofvenn friend) is used instead. When joined with other words, such asklassekamerat, the word is gender neutral. (Although Norwegians would understand what is meant byklassevenninne, it would also sound awkward and somewhat archaic.)
In thePhilippines, communist and left-leaning activists prefer the termkasama (roughly, companion), and the short form,Ka before the name (e.g.Ka Bel).Protestant (usuallyEvangelical) clerics and members of theIglesia ni Cristo also useKa before names ornicknames, but as a contraction ofkapatíd ("brother"/"sister"), denoting spiritual brotherhood. Practitioners of law informally use theSpanish termscompañero andcompañera when referring to each other, albeit without any socio-political connotation.
In thePashto language, the word for comrade ismalgury. It is used by and refers to communists, socialists, or supporters of the communist system across theDurand Line (i.e. inAfghanistan andPakistan) by Pashto speakers. For the last decade or so it has also been used by the nationalists. The word is also used by common people both male and female for a very close friend.
InPoland, the word istowarzysz, which has the same origin as the Russian word. In non-political sense, it means "companion".
InPortugal andBrazil, the word iscamarada, now being commonly employed to refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in thepost-revolutionary society). It is also prevalent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements. The term used among socialist activists nowadays tends to becompanheiro /companheira although in Portugalcamarada is still commonly used. Brazilian presidentLula is widely known for addressing his political mates and supporters ascompanheiro, however this decreased during the last years of his presidential term, while it was very popular during the elections, often imitated by comedians who satirized Lula's idiosyncratic manners. The termscamarada andcompanheiro(s)/companheira(s) are also used without political connotations, meaning "mate", "partner", "fella".
In thePunjabi language the word for comrade isSāthī (ਸਾਥੀ). However, the word "Comrade" itself, or ਕਾਮਰੇਡ (Kāmrēḍ), is used to refer to a communist or communist party member, and is often used as a more linguistically acceptable replacement for the word "communist," with the communist party often being called "The Comrades" or communist thought being called "ਕਾਮਰੇਡ ਸੋਚਣੀ" (Kāmrēḍ Sōcaṇī).
In theRomani language the word for comrade isDosti as seen in the phraseTe vestinel o dosti Tito, te vestinena o jugoslovenske manusha orLong live comradeTito and long live theYugoslav people.
InRomanian the exact translation iscamarad, aneologism introduced fromFrench in the 19th century, which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. During the communist era an older term,tovarăș, derived from a Slavic source, was used to convey the political meaning.
TheSerbo-Croatian equivalent for comrade isdrug (друг) for males anddrugarica (другарица) for females; it's also a regular and colloquial word for "friend", although largely replaced byprijatelj andprijateljica in standard varieties of the language.Communist Party/League of Communists of Yugoslavia promoted the use of the term between the members and generally among the society throughout existence of theSocialist Yugoslavia, fromWorld War II in early 1940s toYugoslav Wars in early 1990s. It was not unusual to hear political leaders referring to their audience asdrugarice i drugovi. Its intention was to emphasize empathy and equality, and it is still used by the most fervocious adherents of leftist ideologies.
TheSlovak word for comrade issúdruh (m.) andsúdružka (f.). The termkamarát is used too, but it is normally translated as friend.
TheSlovenian word for comrade istovariš (m.) andtovarišica (f.), first attested in the 16th century. After the Second World War it was also colloquially used for "teacher" (as an elliptical form of the officialtovariš učitelj (m.) andtovarišica učiteljica (f.) "comrade teacher"). After 1991 it rapidly fell out of use as a general term of address, but is still used when expressingcomradeship among individuals.
TheSindhi word for comrade isSaṅgat,سنگت; it is normally translated as friend.
TheSomali word for comrade isjaalle; it is normally translated as friend. It was widely used by the erstwhileSomali Revolutionary Socialist Party (1969-1991). The word fell out of use after the fall of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party.
InSpain, the word iscompañero (m.) /compañera (f.) ("companion"); the termcamarada ("comrade") has also been used, but it is more associated with the communist andFalange tradition. InSpain the wordcompañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
The standard form inCuba iscompañero /compañera, as it was in socialistNicaragua andChile. In some parts of Latin America,camarada is the more frequent word, except inPeru, where the term is commonly associated with thenom de guerre of members offar left groupsShining Path andMRTA, while members of the social-democrat partyAPRA as well as other left parties or left-leaning organizations employcompañero to refer to fellow members. The termcamarada is the more normal amongSpanish Communists.
In Chile, much like as in Italy,camarada has traditionally been used byits army, and historically by fascist groups, such as theNational Socialist Movement of Chile, whilecompañero is commonplace within far-left wing groups and theSocialist andCommunist parties.
InSinhala, the word isසහෝදරයාsahōdarayā, which literally means brother.
InSwahili, the equivalent word isndugu for brother-in-arms, ordada for a female comrade. The wordndugu is still used in formerly socialist Tanzania as a way of showing (political) solidarity.
TheSwedish word iskamrat. Although it can be associated with communist usage, it can equally well refer simply to a friend, a co-worker (arbetskamrat), or a classmate in school (klasskamrat orskolkamrat). Unlike the correspondingNorwegian word, the term is commonly used for both boys and girls in non-communist usage. See alsoIdrottsföreningen Kamraterna
TheTamil word for comrade isTōḻar (தோழர்) and is a regular word for "friend".
InTetun, the national language ofTimor Leste, the wordcamarada is used – a direct loan from the language of the former colonial power, Portugal. During the 1970s the word was a common term of address within the left-leaningFretilin party, and after the Indonesian invasion, continued to be used by the Fretilin associated guerrillas waging a war of resistance in the jungle. Though largely falling out of use since 1999 Fretilin politicians and veterans of the guerrillas struggle continue to use the term to refer to each other.
TheThai wordsahai (สหาย) was used in the communist movement.
TheTurkish wordyoldaş (literally "co-traveller") has become used within the communist movement,yol meaning "way" and "cause".OttomanJanissaries used to call each otheryoldaş (یولداش "comrade") oryoldaşân (یولداشان, plural: "comrades").[36] Turkish communists, being morally affected byBektashi values of the older era, adopted this term. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage.Yoldaş is also a male name in Turkish.
In theUnited Kingdom, political use of the termcomrade is strongly associated with both Communism and, historically, Fascism. However it is still used as an informal form of address among someLabour Party members, and in a more serious manner by many smaller parties of the left. Use of the term is generally restricted to people with whom the speaker agrees politically. It is usually written in full, the abbreviationCde being associated with southern African usage. The honorific termssister andbrother, also declining in usage, are more politically inclusive, encompassing everyone from the centre-left to the far-left, without necessarily indicating complete political agreement. All three terms are occasionally used in a mocking or patronising manner by political opponents. On the far right,comrade was the standard form of address between members of theBritish Union of Fascists and featured widely in their publications and marching songs.
In theUnited States, the wordcomrade carries a strong connotation with Communism,Marxism–Leninism, and the former Soviet Union. Especially during theCold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is frequently used ironically in that way. In addition, it is still used in its generic context[clarification needed] by some American socialists. Despite this, it has been adopted into the U.S. ArmySoldier's Creed in the statement "I will never leave a fallen comrade". It is also used at meetings of theVeterans of Foreign Wars to address a fellow member.
TheVietnamese word isđồng chí, which is derived from Chinese同志. Due to the influence of Chinese revolutionary groups during the early 20th century on the Vietnamese independence movement, its usage was first seen among members of theKuomintang-backedVietnamese Nationalist Party and then later spread to members of theVietnamese Communist Party. It is still being used openly in public to address state and Communist Party leaders as well as among soldiers and military officers in the Army.
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^Blasco, Dennis J (2011)."The Four General Departments".The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century (2nd ed.).Routledge.ISBN978-0415783224.According to regulations, members of thePLA address each other: (1) by their duty position, or (2) by their position plus surname, or (3) by their position plus the title "comrade" (tongzhi). When the duty position of the other person is not known, one service member may address the other by military rank plus the word "comrade" or only as comrade.
^Jaster, Robert Scott (1992).South Africa's Other Whites: Voices for Change. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. p. 110.ISBN978-0333522080.
^Sechaba, Tsepo; Ellis, Stephen (1992).Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC & the South African Communist Party in Exile. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 72.ISBN978-0253210623.
^abcBornman, Elirea; van Eeden, Renee; Wentzel, Marie (1998).Violence in South Africa: A Variety of Perspectives. Pretoria: HRSC, Publishers. p. 110.ISBN978-0796918581.
^Macklin, Graham; Graham, Macklin (September 2013). "'Onward Blackshirts!' Music and the British Union of Fascists".Patterns of Prejudice.47 (4–5):430–457.doi:10.1080/0031322X.2013.845447.S2CID143471819.
^Sánchez-Boudy, José (1978).Diccionario de cubanismos más usuales (Cómo habla el cubano) (in Spanish). Miami: Ediciones Universal.En Cuba, hoy en día, se llama a todo el mundo «compañero».
The dictionary definition ofcomrade at Wiktionary