Ancient Celtic warfare refers to the historical methods ofwarfare employed by variousCeltic people andtribes fromClassical antiquity through theMigration period.
Unlike modern military systems, Celtic groups did not have a standardizedregular military. Instead, their organization varied depending on clan groupings andsocial class within each tribe.
Endemic warfare was a common and significant aspect of life in Celticsocieties. However, the organizational structures of these tribes differed widely. Some had rigidhierarchies with rulingmonarchies, while others operated with representational structures resemblingrepublics.
Over time, the expansionist policies of theRoman Empire led to the incorporation of many continental Celtic peoples into Roman rule, such as southernBritain. Resulting in the adoption ofRoman culture by Gallic and Brittonic cultures. This led to the rise of hybrid cultures such as theGallo-Roman andRomano-British duringLate antiquity. As a consequence, Celtic culture became predominantly confined toInsular Celtic peoples.
Whilearchaeological discoveries offer valuable insights into the material culture of theCelts, determining the precise nature of their ancient combat techniques remains a topic of speculation.
Celtic mythology is fractured as the mythologies of most of thecontinental Celtic peoples, such as theGauls,Galatians andCeltiberians, did not survive theRoman conquests, with onlyremnants found withinGreco-Roman sources and archaeology. Most surviving Celtic mythology belongs to theInsular Celtic peoples who were able to preserve their myths and traditions withoral lore. These were committed to writing in themedieval period by Christian scribes, some time after the pre-Christian era they are supposed to depict.Irish mythology has the largest written body of myths, followed byWelsh mythology. Other surviving examples beingCornish mythology,Breton mythology andScottish mythology.
Champion warfare was an important common aspect of Celtic mythology, with examples in theUlster cycle, theFourth Branch of theMabinogi and theArthurian cycle. In theTáin Bó Cúailnge, chiefly the story ofUlaid heroCú Chulainn, he defeats an entire army fromConnacht one by one insingle combat.
This story describes combat centered on the use of thespear (gae) andjavelin (gá-ín) with no mention of helmets or metal armor, which is consistent and in keeping with archaeological evidence.Chariots also played an important role in the warfare and culture of various Celtic groups, withchariot burials being an important and unifying aspect of Celtic cultures such as theHallstatt culture,La Tène culture,Gallic andBrittonic cultures; no remains of these vehicles from the period have yet been discovered in Ireland.[1]
Endemic warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. Whileepic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than an organized territorial conquest, thehistorical record is more of different groups using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.
Celtic peoples fought amongst each other; sometimes they allied themselves with theRomans,Greeks,Carthaginians,Etruscans,Macedonians,Germanic peoples and various other peoples against each other and against other Celtic groups. The organizational structure of Celtic tribes and societies varied greatly with some groups having strict hierarchical structures and a rulingmonarchy, while others exhibited representational organizational structures typical of aRepublic, especially by the time of theGallic Wars.[2]
Historical Celtic groups included theBelgae,Bituriges,Boii,Britons,Celtiberians,Gaels,Galatians,Gallaeci,Gauls,Helvetii,Lepontii,Picts,Norici and theVolcae. These groups often produced cultural offshoots throughdescent,diffusion,migration andCelticisation.
Archaeology provides much information regarding the material culture of the Celts, especially that of theLa Tène culture andHallstatt culture. However, the significance of these finds in determining how the ancient Celts actually fought is the subject of much speculation and debate. It was long thought, for instance, that the Celts wereheadhunters, but recent research fromFrance has indicated that it may have been the heads of slainallies that were collected to be placed in porticos, while the defeated were dumped in mass graves, their weapons ritually broken.[3]
TheHallstatt culture is the earliest to be identified as associated with Celtic culture, spreading from north of theAlps west into France, Southern Britain and theIberian Peninsula. The earlier phases of the Hallstatt era fall into theBronze Age.Swords seem to have been the primary weapon from this period, perhaps indicating that warfare was a relatively small scale affair, possibly between groups of elite warriors.
In the latter phases of the Hallstatt era, iron began to replace bronze in the manufacture of weapons, and the classic "Celtic sword" with its leaf-bladed design made its appearance.Chariot burials are also characteristic of the period; it is possible that they also served a function in the warfare of this age, but the chariots are four-wheeled vehicles and they do not occur at all in Britain until theLa Tène period.[4]
At the very end of the Hallstatt era, the longsword seemed to fall out of favor, ousted by shorter, thrustingdaggers which are found in greater numbers among grave goods in high status burials.[5]
TheLa Tène period saw changing patterns of warfare. At the beginning of the La Tène period warfare was likely conducted on a small scale between elite warriors, perhaps inchariots, wielding a new type ofCeltic longsword.
During the succeeding centuries the design of the sword changed, characteristically becoming shorter, single-edged and lacking a thrusting point, designed purely to make a cut (although the Hallstatt era sword had also been primarily a slashing weapon).[6] and greater regional variation in swords appeared: inBritain andIreland even the longer sword designs were shorter and thinner than their Continental counterparts.[7] It is possible that in the later La Tène era, an increasing population would have led to larger armies organized in ranks of spearmen, leading to a decline in the importance of thechampion with his sword and hence a decline in sword functionality.
The La Tène era also saw the development of armor in the form ofchainmail, the familiar form in which a garment is constructed of linked metal rings. Finds of mail are rare, suggesting that it was a luxury restricted to high status warriors. Crested helmets of this period occur in greater numbers than of mail, but overall the picture is of Celtic armies being made up largely of lightly armored or unarmored fighters.
Chariot burials continued well into the La Tène period, suggesting their continued importance in warfare. The La Tène chariot was a light, two-wheeled vehicle, unlike the heavier chariot of earlier times. The arrangement of the chariot poles in a reconstruction of theWetwang Chariot suggests they were drawn by small ponies only 11 or 12hands high[8] and thus seem unlikely to be used in a frontal charge. Because chariot burials were never practiced in Ireland, the nature or existence ofchariot warfare in that specific country remains unclear.
In the Later La Tène period,Roman expansion into Celtic areas began with the conquest ofGallia Cisalpina in 275 BC. The conquest ofGallia Celtica followed in 121 BC and was completed with theGallic Wars of 58-50 BC. After this period,Gallic culture quickly assimilated toRoman culture, giving rise to the hybridGallo-Roman culture ofLate Antiquity.
Roman conquest eventually extinguished the cultural and political independence of all the Celtic peoples starting on theItalian peninsula, then theIberian Peninsula,Anatolia,Gaul and finally southernBritain. Celtic cultural independence survived only inIreland,Scotland,Wales andCumbria.
After the Roman era, only in the British Isles, therefore, could there be said to still exist a distinctlyCeltic culture,peoples and style of warfare. Ireland was the last region to adopt theLa Tène style of Celtic culture and technology with a smaller and less dense population than that of theBritish orContinental Celts, theGaelic Irish sustained an era of small scale elite clan warfare for much longer.[9]
Traditional patterns of warfare seem to have continued all the way to theViking andNorman invasions. For centuries the backbone of any Gaelic Irish army were lightly armed foot soldiers calledCeithearn orKern. Kern usually fought lacking metal armor including helmets, fighting withspears (gae) and a set ofjavelins ordarts (gá-ín), along dagger (scian), occasionally wieldingaxes (tua) andbow (bogha), protected bya round shield (sciath) and in the case of higher status and class warriors,swords (claideamh).[10] TheViking invasions saw greater adoption of the shortbow and heavier armor in addition, but never in great numbers.[10]
TheNorman invasion in the 12th century and the ineffectiveness of traditional tactics in resisting it led to the Irish moving towards a more typically medieval style of warfare exemplified by theGallóglaigh orGallowglass heavy infantry soldier. Unlike Kern, Gallowglass usually worechainmail andiron helmets and wielded heavy weaponry such as theDane axe,sparth axe,claymores and sometimes spears orlances. They were a kind ofheavy infantry,shock troop andelite bodyguard for theGaelic nobility. They were the Celtic response to the heavily favored and armoredheavy cavalry,knights andmen-at-arms of theera and were very effective.
The best knownRoman source for descriptions of Celtic warfare was fromJulius Caesar in hisCommentaries on the Gallic Wars in which he describes the methods of warfare of both theGauls and theBritons.
TheGallic Wars were a series ofmilitary campaigns waged by the Romanproconsul againstGallic tribes, lasting from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Romans would also raid and invadeBritannia andGermania. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisiveBattle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of theRoman Republic over the whole ofGaul. These wars paved the way for Caesar (and later his anointed heir, Augustus) to gain unchecked control of the Roman Republic.
Descriptions of battles against various Gallic tribes, heavily contrasts the popular picture of the wild and naked Celtic warrior. Caesar even speaks of theHelvetii fighting in close order in an organized fashion, forming aphalanx as a defense against cavalry and advancing in a close formation.[12] He also speaks ofarrows being used against his troops crossing rivers and against the besiegers ofGergovia, capital of theArverni[13] - one of the few engagements in whichVercingetorix outmanoeuvred Caesar. He mentions the use ofjavelins by theBelgic tribe, theNervii,[14] but despite Roman writers frequently referring to the use ofswords by theCelts in battle, Caesar never mentions Gallic troops fighting en masse with swords. By the mid-1st century BC, Celtic tribes in Gaul may have had a core of properly trained and equipped Gallic leaders, in addition to the tribal levy of lightly armed and armored Gauls.
It is perhaps the descriptions of theBritons which have most influenced the popular image of the wild Celticberserker. Caesar purposefully emphasized the "barbarian" aspect of the Britons for political reasons since his expedition was brief out of necessity, describing how they wore animal skins, had wives in common, did not grow crops and they dyed and tattoo their skin blue: although his description does not mention which plant was used, subsequent commentators have supposed thatwoad was the source of this blue dye and though later experimentation suggests that woad is not very well suited as a skin dye nor as tattoo ink,[15] this image, when conflated with the descriptions of theGaesatae, has nevertheless helped paint the picture of the woad-daubed ancientBriton orPict charging into battle naked and blue.
The other popular image ofpre-Roman Britain, thescythed chariot, is not mentioned by Caesar either but alluded to by later commentators, such asPomponius Mela, during and after theRoman conquest.
No Celtic group employed a regular military as we would understand it. Organization was according toclan grouping andsocial class. A war leader's immediate companions were known inGaulish as*ambaxtoi ("those who accompany"), a term which passed into Latin and from which the Englishambassador ultimately derives.
The earliest Celtic encounter withRomans in 387 BC, was an outright disaster for theRoman Republic. The resultingBattle of the Allia was a defeat and rout for the Romans, after which all of the city ofRome, apart from theCapitoline Hill, fell. A confederacy ofGaulish andCeltic tribes led byBrennus of theSenones occupied the city for a time before being driven out. Little or no detail is given of the methods of warfare of these Gauls, except that according toPlutarch some were armed withswords and some weremounted.[16]
In 280 BC, a great army ofVolcae comprising about 85,000 warriors[17] leftPannonia, split into three divisions, and marched south in a "great expedition"[18][19] toMacedon andCentral Greece. Under the leadership ofCerethrius, 20,000 men moved against the Thracians andTriballi. Another division, led by anotherBrennus[20] andAcichorius[21] moved against thePaionians, while the third division, headed byBolgios, aimed for theMacedonians andIllyrians.Leonnorius split off from the group with a sizable force intoThrace, heading further intoAsia Minor where they ravaged the country to the shores of theHellespont, compelled the city ofByzantium to pay themtribute, and then moved into centralAnatolia.Phrygia, the region that theseCeltic peoples eventually settled became known asGalatia after them. The Gallic campaign of Brennus, eventually met the fierce resistance of a combined allied Greek Army at the secondBattle of Thermopylae. The Celts were able to defeat the Greeks but at great cost. Despite the hollow Celtic victory at Thermopylae, Brennus pushed onwards toattack Delphi. Most scholars deem this Gallic Greek campaign a disaster for the Celts.
According toPausanias this force included large numbers of cavalry, organized in a system calledTrimarcisia (from the words*tri- *marko- "three horse") dividing them into teams of three, only two of which would be mounted at one time. The second of Brennus' expeditions would have originated inPannonia andNoricum, the same region which would later become famous for producingNoric steel, the highest quality available forarmor and weaponry in theRoman Empire. Celts were renowned for their ability to makeswords of bothbronze andiron. Swords were too expensive for many common soldiers, so they fought with aspear,javelins orslings instead.[22]
Tacitus wrote that the strength of the Celts lay in theirinfantry,[24] which proved true in many of the early encounters and engagements between the Celts and their Greco-Roman contemporaries. While Celtic Infantry tactics and equipment varied greatly from group to group, they did have some core commonalities. The average Celtic warrior was equipped with a large oblong shield,javelins and aspear, and the wealthier warriors also carried asword. While it might initially appear from Classical sources such asPolybius that the equipment of the Celts as a whole was relatively simple and generally inferior,[25] the truth is far more complex, as the adoption of Celtic equipment and technology by many of their Classical contemporaries after engagements with the Celts presents a different picture.
Celtic arms and armor were in fact highly advanced, as the Celts were renowned master Iron workers in theHallstatt,La Tène cultures and in the province ofNoricum. The Celts were described by classical writers such asLivy andFlorus as fighting as hordes like "wild beasts".Julius Caesar contradicts these sources in his descriptions of battles against Gallic tribes inCommentaries on the Gallic Wars. Caesar speaks of continental Celts fighting in an organized fashion, even forming aPhalanx orTestudo like formation as defense against advancing cavalry.[12] This heavily contrasts the enduring image of the unorganized naked Celtic barbarian, as depicted by other Greco-Roman sources.
Following theCeltic invasion of Greece in the 3rd century BC, the proliferation of elements of Celtic styles of weaponry and equipment had spread both far and wide, such aschain mail-style armor, theMontefortino,Coolus andAden style helmets,thyreos-style body shields, andgladius andspatha style swords. Even though Celtic peoples had access to iron swords and armor, they were only available to a select few within Celtic society. Thus, aside from the King, Chief and wealthy nobility, body armor was rare, with most warriors wearing colorful cloaks or tunics, shirts, and pants, although some may have stripped to the waist or in some instances wore nothing at all into battle. The Celts’ main early advantage was their ability to scare and intimidate foes on the battlefield. Thus, even though most Celtic warriors were unarmored, the Celts themselves fought in the manner ofheavy infantry, using fear andshock tactics as a form ofpsychological warfare while closing in on enemy formations in dense masses in order to break enemy lines and rout formations. This was an incredibly successful and effective tactic at first, such as at theBattle of the Allia.
Celtic peoples were also renowned for their skill asequestrians both on and off the field of battle. Horses played an important role in overall Celtic culture, with ownership being linked with bothsocial status andwealth.Strabo even wrote that though allGauls were great warriors by nature, they fought better on horseback than on foot, and that the best of theRoman cavalry was drawn from their number.[26] Auxiliary Gallic horsemen were commonly used by the lateRoman Republic and earlyRoman Empire, having most notably fought forCrassus at theBattle of Carrhae. These Celtic mercenaries led byPublius Licinius Crassus held their own against aParthian force during the key engagement. However, anambush, the heavy armor of theCataphracts combined with use ofhorse archers and theparthian shot all contributed to their defeat.Pausanias described CelticCavalry tactics while recounting the Celtic invasion of Greece byBrennus andBolgios in hisDescription of Greece. He described a tactic called theTrimarcisia or the"feat of three horsemen" in which each mounted Gallic warrior was accompanied into battle by two attendants who each had a horse of their own. According to Pausanias, when a Gallic horsemen was injured or killed, one attendant mounted the horse in his master's place, ready to continue the fight. When the first rider was only wounded, one attendant brought the wounded warrior back to camp, while the other took his place in the height of the action.[27]
_(1898)_(14594535580).jpg)
Thecarnyx was awind instrument of theIron Age Celts, attested for ca. 300 BC to 200 AD. It is a kind ofbronzetrumpet, held vertically, the mouth styled in the shape of aboar's head. It was used in warfare, probably to incite troops to battle and intimidate opponents.[28] The instrument's upright carriage allowed its notes to carry over the heads of the participants in battles and ceremonies.
In earlier encounters with the Romans, such as theBattle of Sentinum, some Celts would employ the chariot.[29] Although chariots had fallen out of use in continental Europe from the end of the 3rd century BC, Caesar found that they remained significant in Brittonic warfare. If his descriptions are to be believed, he encountered in Britain an army in transition, possessing cavalry but still with an elite fighting from chariots. He describes how these warriors would throw javelins from their vehicles before abandoning them to fight on foot and returning to them in order to retreat or redeploy.[30] Cavalry proper is described as used for skirmishing.Gauls are said to have commented that they themselves had formerly used chariots but had abandoned them by this time.
Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the meantime withdraw a little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry.[31]
Celtic warriors served asmercenaries in many of the great armies of the Classical period. Some of the best known[32] were those who joinedCarthage andHannibal in his invasion of theItalian Peninsula during theSecond Punic War and who contributed to his victories inLake Trasimene and at theBattle of Cannae. Celtic mercenaries notably fought for the Romans against theParthians at theBattle of Carrhae. The Roman cavalry, composed primarily ofGallic horsemen, fought bravely and held their own against theCataphracts but the inferiority in armor and equipment was evident and contributed to their defeat. Celtic warriors would often fight for various powers as mercenaries throughoutClassical antiquity such as theRomans,Greeks,Carthaginians andMacedonians. When a branch ofBrennus' Balkanexpedition turned East and crossed theHellespont, they founded a Celtic-ruled state inAsia Minor known asGalatia. Galatia became well known as a source of mercenaries throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region. Illustrations showing troops armed with long, straight swords and oval shields have generally been taken to depictGalatians.
The Greek historianPolybius gives an account of theBattle of Telamon 225 BC in which the Romans defeated an invasion by theBoii,Insubres,Taurisci andGaesatae. The Gaesatae were said to be a group of warriors who fought for hire and it is they who are described in the most detail. Whereas the Boii and Insubres wore trousers and cloaks which were thick enough to afford limited protection from the Roman javelins, the Gaesatae removed their clothes to fight naked, standing in front of their allies and seeking to intimidate the Romans with shouting and gesturing. However, this lack of protection caused their defeat since they carried relatively small shields which did not adequately protect them against the missile fire of the Roman skirmishers. Suffering heavy casualties, the Gaesatae either fled the battlefield or desperately charged headlong into the Roman lines where, outmatched for both numbers and equipment, they were defeated. What position the Gaesatae occupied in Celtic society has been much debated. Early writers assumed that they were a tribe, but later authors have inclined to the view that they may have been groups of unattached young warriors who lived by raiding and mercenary activities like the early Romaniuventes or the semi-legendary Irishfianna.[33]
There are accounts of Celtic soldiers working as mercenaries for many of the great dynasties of theClassical world including thePtolemaic dynasty, theSeleucids and theAttalids. Notable figures such asCleopatra VII ofEgypt andHerod the Great ofJudea were said to have Celtic bodyguards.Josephus in hisAntiquities of the Jews mentionsGallic orGalatian soldiers present at the funeral of theKing of Judea, Herod.[34]
While relatively little has been written about Celtic warfare at sea, the GallicVeneti, a tribe dwelling on the southern coast ofArmorica (Brittany), along theGulf of Morbihan, was well known and renowned among theGauls as a strong seafaring people.
The Veneti had trading stations inBritain and regularly sailed to the island, and they charged customs and port dues on trade ships as they passed through the region. They constructed ships of oak with tough leather sails, well adapted for traversing and plying the roughAtlantic sea. The Veneti designed and maneuvered their vessels so skillfully that boarding was near impossible on open water.
Following the beginning of theGallic Wars, the Veneti fiercely resisted theRomans both on land and by sea during the period following Caesar'sconquest of Gaul but before hisinvasion of Britain.[35] They targeted the Romans for raiding and maintained positive trade relations with the Britons across thechannel. Given the highly defensible nature of the Veneti sea strongholds, land attacks were frustrated by the incoming tide, and naval forces were left trapped on the rocks vulnerable when the tide ebbed. Their capital, Darioritum, in modern-dayVannes, was extremely difficult to attack from land.
At first theRoman galleys, fighting in unfamiliar conditions, were at a great disadvantage and suffered defeats and setbacks.Julius Caesar gaveDecimus Junius Brutus Albinus command of the Roman fleet and theRoman navy adopted new tactics in order to quell the activities of the Veneti once and for all. Instead of boarding or capturing ships, the Romans would simply set them on fire. The Roman fleet under Albinus subjected the Veneti to savage reprisals for their earlier defiance. This culminated in theBattle of Morbihan when the Romans succeeded in setting aflame and destroying the entire Gallic fleet inQuiberon Bay, with Caesar watching from the shore. Following this defeat, their maritime commerce and trade activities declined under theRoman Empire.[36]
Large stores of slingstones aerodynamically shaped by adding clay have been found in the Southern Britishhillfort ofMaiden Castle[37] which indicates thatslings must also have played a role in the conflicts between Celtic tribes there, probably in sieges.
TheLa Tène period also saw the development of multivallate fortresses, protected by formidable earthworks as well as theMurus Gallicus andPfostenschlitzmauer constructions. The larger settlements inGaul were described byJulius Caesar asoppida and the term is now used to designate the large pre-Roman towns that existed all across Western and Central Europe, many of which grew from hill forts. There are over 2000 of these forts known in Britain alone.[38]
TheCeltic circular wall of Otzenhausen is one of the biggest fortifications theCelts ever constructed. It was built by Celts of theTreveri tribe, who lived in the region north of the fort. The fort is located on top of theDollberg, a hill nearOtzenhausen inGermany, about 695 m above sea level. The only visible remains are two circular earth ramparts, covered with stones.
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.m.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding missing information.(September 2009) |
Celts were influenced by other peoples but they heavily influenced the warfare of their enemies.
Celtic influence onGermanic culture is a long debated topic; it is generally accepted thatCeltic languages had an impact onGermanic languages;[39] however their impact onGermanic religion,myths[40] andmaterial culture[41] is more difficult to assess. Celtic andGermanic warfare greatly influenced one another due to proximity, competition for territory and due toendemic warfare being a key feature of both cultures.Greco-Roman writers took notice of this competitive cultural relationship during the massmigration around 120–115 BC that set off theCimbrian War. Celtic and Germanic interaction, competition and influence on each other andcultural diffusion between the two is known to pre-dateGreek andRoman awareness of either culture. The Germanic languages borrowed much of their vocabulary related topolitics,leadership,iron smithing andmedicine from the Celtic languages, such as *rik- ‘king’, *isarna ‘iron’, *ambahtaz ‘servant’, *brunjon- ‘mailshirt’, *lekijaz ‘physician’, *gislaz ‘hostage’, *Rinaz ‘Rhine’, and *walhaz ‘foreigner’.[39] InDenmark, the Wagons fromDejbjerg and the bronze kettle ofSophienborg Mose show huge similarities with the La Tène artistic culture, notably the bull figures on the kettle[42] and the figure of a man on a wagon. As for the weaponry, double-edged La Tène swords found at Værebro and Tissø (Zealand, Denmark), Vogn (Hjørring, Denmark) and Lindholmgård (Scania, Sweden) suggest a likely cultural transfer through local elite.[43][44] The famousHjortspring Bog, where a boat and multiple weapons have been found, displays Celtic influence, specifically in thespearheads and thechainmails.[45] In the regions associated with Elbe Germanic groups, double-edged La Tène swords similar to those from Denmark have been found atGroßromstedt (Thuringia, Germany).[46] There is a correspondence in the weaponry found in graves atSchkopau and Großromstedt with the description of the Gallic society byPoseidonios, where there is a hierarchy for the warrior's companions, from the shield-bearers to the spear-bearers and finally the chief at the top.[47] The presence of La Tène items inThuringia could also be due to a growing influence ofPrzeworsk culture from the east at the end of the 1st century BC.[48]
Close to the Rhine, in the region ofWestphalia andLower Saxony, multiple La Tène spearheads have been identified in local context atBorchen-Gellinghausen,[49] Olfen-Kökelsum[50] andSchnippenburg, and two La Tène swords at Wilzenberger.[51] Schnippenburg's site is an interesting case of Middle La Tène influence on several aspect of the local lifestyle (fortification, adornment, weaponry, cult). Quoting Sebastian Möllers: "Until 10 to 15 years ago, there was still the assumption that the La Tène culture was largely confined to the described core space. However, the results of recent research paint a whole new picture. And especially in this context, the findings of the Schnippenburg is a very special place."[52]
ThePrzeworsk culture is a culture beginning at the 2nd century BC; it is characterized by a cultural facies strongly influenced by the La Tène culture.[53][54][55] Compared toElbe cultural groups, the Przeworsk culture is best documented regarding weaponry prior to the period of theRoman Empire, as cremation graves are frequently accompanied by weapons. It is generally interpreted as warlike society.[56] On the matter, Celtic iron chain belts, iron scabbards, spurs, knives and fibula are found in the graves.[53][57][58][59] In contrast to the scabbards found in other Germanic regions, Przeworsk culture seems to have adopted the characteristic suspension of Middle La Tène swords during the first half of the 2nd century BC.[60] Although single edged swords commonly related to Germanic cultures are also common in warrior graves. A sword with a bronze pseudo-anthropomorphic hilt elements typical of the Middle La Tène has been discovered in the Vistula River close to the village ofSiarzewo (Poland).[61]
TheCelts influencedThracian warfare in the adoption of certain long swords by theTriballi, for example, although this was not universal among theThracians. Another weapon, thesica, was called theThracian sword[62] (Ancient Greek:Θρᾳκικὸν ξίφος) though it did not originate there, despite its popular usage.[63] Considered Thrace's national weapon, the sword's ultimate origin was theHallstatt culture[64] and the Thracians may have or adopted or inherited it.
Several archaeological discoveries suggest an important influence on theDacian warfare andculture. Celticchariots have been found in Geto-Dacian territories at the actual locations ofCurtuiuşeni,Apahida,Fântânele,Gălăoaia,Cristuru Secuiesc,Vurpăr andToarcla.[65] Celts introduced their typical horned saddle as it is observed in Dacian necropolis along items belonging to the La Tène culture.[65][66] Dacians incorporated Celtic long swords, round shield bosses and helmets in their panoply, a good example is the tumulus N°2 of Cugir necropolis.[67][68][69] Iron chain belts and chainmails are also interpreted as the result of Celtic influence.[70][71] The Celtic-GermanicBastarnae were an important part of the Dacian army when they inflicted a harsh defeat toGaius Antonius Hybrida.[72][73] The Celts played a very active role inDacia[74] and the CelticScordisci were among the tribes allied to the Dacians.[75]
Celts affectedIllyrian warfare and theIllyrians in cultural and material aspects and some Illyrians were evenCelticized, especially the tribes inDalmatia[76] and thePannonians.[77] A type of wooden oblong shield with aniron boss was introduced to Illyria from the Celts.Hallstatt culture influences abounded as the Illyrians were also its descendants.[78]
Following theGallic invasion of Greece there was a proliferation of Celtic mercenaries throughout theEastern Mediterranean. Due to this occurrence, elements of theGalatian style of warfare and equipment were widely adopted byHellenistic powers.Greeks andMacedonians adopted the long oval Celtic body shields they calledThureos. This ultimately led to the development of two new troop types: theThureophoroi and theThorakitai.
TheRomans were heavily influenced and affected by their interactions with theCelts. Much of the standardized equipment of the military of the laterRoman Republic and earlyRoman Empire were based upon equipment with Celtic origins. Some major examples being theGalea helmet based upon earlierGallic helmets,Lorica Hamata armor was based uponChainmail of theNoric peoples and both of the primary swords used by the Romans, theGladius andSpatha were based upon earlier swords ofCeltiberian design. TheCeltic swords and scabbards of theLa Tène B have been found in earlyRome. Notably, the oldest record for the wordROMA comes from a La Tène sword found inSan Vittore del Lazio (Frosinone, Latium)[79][80][81][82][83]see also. Another sword of the same type have been found in thesanctuary of Juno ofGabii with its typical Celtic scabbard.[84] TheIberian Peninsula, comprising modernSpain andPortugal, was a place of diverse cultures in classical times with various tribes who cannot always be placed firmly asCeltic.Iberian Celts mainlyCeltiberians, but alsoLusitanians andCantabrians fought forHannibal asmercenaries against the Romans in theSecond Punic War. The Iberian Celts' best known weapon was thegladius Hispaniensis, which was eventually adopted by the Romans as their own standardizedgladius. The very name, too, may derive from the Celtic root *kledo-, meaning "sword". The Romans described the spear of theGauls with the wordgaesum, a Latinisation of theGaulish*gaisos. It is likely that two Latin words for chariot,carrus andcovinnus, were adopted from Celtic languages, although the Romans at no point seem to have employed chariots in warfare. The Latin wordlancea, used for the javelins of auxiliary troops, as well as the two words forchariot,carrus andcovinnus, are also supposedly derived fromIberian,Celtiberian, orCeltic words.
From their earliest interactions, the major civilizations ofClassical antiquity such asGreek,Roman,Etruscan andMacedonian civilizations faced major threats from the Celtic world. Early in the period, the Etruscans had to deal with the CelticBiturges' mass migration crossing the Alps under the lead ofBellovesus in the 5th century BC. The Romans' first major encounter with the Celts, at theBattle of the Allia, was an outright disaster for the fledglingRoman Republic. The inexperienced Roman army was routed; this defeat culminated with theSenones, led by their war leader,Brennus, sacking the city except for theCapitoline Hill. Even though the Romans were able to save their city and wrest control back, these events left a lasting impression on the Roman people.
.jpg)
The Greeks and Macedonians had their own issues with theGallic tribes. Celts originating from variousLa Tène chiefdoms andNoricum began amass migration and settlement of theBalkans from the 4th century BC. These expeditions were led by multiple leaders, including anotherBrennus,Acichorious,Bolgios,Cerethrius andLeonnorius. These migrations had a massive impact on the region and culminated with a series of events: the defeat and decapitation of theMacedonian king,Ptolemy Ceraunus, the defeat of a Greek Army at theBattle of Thermopylae, the subsequentattack on Delphi and finallythe foundations of the settlement inAsia Minor that became home to theGalatians. This series of events left a lasting impression on the Greeks.
Later, the military position was reversed as theRoman Empire expanded its sphere of influence and gradually conquered most of theCeltic peoples. During this period, both Greek and Roman writers and scholars were heavily biased against the Celts and tended to focus much on the savage ferocity of the fearless, naked, headhunting Celtic warrior, creating an image which has persisted ever since. To the Ancient Greeks and Romans the Celtic warrior was the archetypalbarbarian,[85] stereotypically presented as massive, powerful, and malicious.
One of the practices of the Celts that the Greco-Roman civilizations found especially barbaric washeadhunting. Celts were described byGreco-Roman writers as having a"cult of the severed head" andhuman sacrifice as major components of their religious life. Celts followed anancient Celtic religion overseen by theDruids. According toPaul Jacobsthal, "Amongst the Celts thehuman head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world."[86]
Ancient Romans and Greeks recorded the Celts' habits of embalming incedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies, allies and relatives; and the mounting of the heads on walls for decoration and in porticos or pillars in their entry for display. The Greco-Roman writers also describe the Celts hanging severed heads from the necks of their horses while riding in order to intimidate onlookers and enemies alike. IfIrish mythology is to be believed, headhunting and abeheading game may have been practiced inIreland for a great deal longer by the CelticGaels, perhaps all the way to theintroduction of Christianity to Ireland in the 5th century AD. In theUlster Cycle of Irish mythology, two of the major heroic figures,Cúchulainn andConall Cernach, are both described as taking part in this practice. With both heroes decapitating their enemies and publicly displaying the heads.
Both the Greeks and Romans found the Celtic decapitation practices shocking, and the Romans made sure to put an end to them when Celtic regions came under their control. However, Greeks and Romans both employed decapitation and other horrific tortures, highlighting a tendency to view practices as more shocking when carried out by an outside group, even if the practices were essentially similar.[87]
In the 5th century BC, Greek writerEphoros described the Celts as "one of the four great barbarian peoples, along with thePersians, theScythians and theLibyans". They were calledKeltoi orGalatae by the Greeks andCeltae orGalli by the Romans.Aristotle comments that their courage had an element of passion to it,[88] like that of all barbarians.Diodorus Siculus writes that they were extremely addicted to wine[89] and that one could exchange a mere jar of wine for a slave.
The Celts were described by classical writers such asStrabo,Livy,Pausanias, andFlorus as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes.Dionysius said that their "manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking inmilitary science. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner ofwild boars, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armor and all".[90] Such views and descriptions of Celts as presented by Greco-Roman writers are generally viewed with some skepticism by contemporary historians. This is due to the fact that much of the information is presented with an inherent negative bias and doesn't match the archaeological record.[91]
.png)
.png)
.png)
This is a list of battles or conflicts in whichCelts had a leading or crucial role, including asmercenaries.
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help);Missing or empty|title= (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)[permanent dead link]{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)they often used the Scordisci as allies.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
