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Cantonists (Russian:кантонисты; more properly:военные кантонисты, "military cantonists"[1]) were underage sons of conscripts in theRussian Empire. From 1721 on they were educated in special "cantonist schools" (Кантонистские школы) for future military service (the schools were calledgarrison schools in the 18th century). The cantonist schools and the cantonist system were eventually abolished in 1857, following public and international criticism and the Russian defeat in theCrimean War.[2][3][4]
Cantonist schools were established by the 1721 TsarPeter the Great's decree, which stipulated that every regiment was required to maintain a school for 50 boys. Their enrollment was increased in 1732, and the term was set from 7 to 15. The curriculum included grammar and arithmetic, and those with a corresponding aptitude were taughtartillery,fortification, music and singing,scrivenery,equine veterinary science, ormechanics. Those lacking such talents were taughtcarpentry,blacksmithing,shoemaking, and other trades applicable to the military. The most able were trained for a further three years, until 18. All entered military service after their studies. The decree of 1758 required all male children of the military personnel to be taught in the cantonist schools. In 1798, a military "asylum orphanage" was established inSaint Petersburg, and all regimental schools were renamed after it, the total enrollment reaching 16,400.
The schools were reorganized in 1805, and all children were now referred to as cantonists. Their number increased dramatically after theFrench invasion of Russia in 1812, when many orphaned sons of military personnel killed in the war enrolled in canton schools voluntarily. During this period, the curriculum was equivalent to that ofgymnasia and military subjects were not taught.
In 1824, all canton schools were made answerable to the Director of Military Settlements, CountAleksey Arakcheyev, and in 1826, they were organized into canton battalions. Curriculum standards dropped significantly, and subjects were limited to those applicable to the military.
During the reign ofNicholas I of Russia, cantonists reached 36,000. Several canton battalions became specialized: they prepared auditors,artillerists,engineers,military surgeons, andcartographers.
More boys were added to the category of cantonists. Eventually, sons of discharged soldiers, illegitimate sons of soldiers' partners or widows, and even foundlings were included.
There were several exemptions:
There were considerable differences in cantonists' service obligations:
There was forcible conscription of underage recruits from the populations of indigenous peoples,Old Believers,Romani people, and commonvagrants from 1805,Jews from 1827, followed by thePoles from 1831.[5]
There were some significant differences in the treatment of Jews and non-Jews: all others were required to provide conscripts between 18 and 35, while for Jews, the age limit was 12–25, and it was left to the discretion of the Jewishqahal to choose conscripts from whatever age they decided. Thus, in practice, Jewish children were often conscripted as young as eight or nine years old.[6] This system created a disproportionate number of Jewish cantonists, and betrayed the utilitarian agenda of the statute: to draft those more likely to be susceptible to external influence, and thus to assimilation.
After 1827, the term was applied to Jews andCrimean Karaites,[7][8][9] who were drafted to military service at the age of twelve and placed for their six-year military education in cantonist schools. Like all otherconscriptions, they were required to serve in theImperial Russian army for 25 years after the completion of their studies (in 1834 the term was reduced to 20 years plus five years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years of reserve).[10] According to the "Statute on Conscription Duty" signed by TsarNicholas I on August 26 (September 7new style), 1827, Jews were made liable to personal military service and were subject to the same conscription quota as all other tax-paying estates ("sosloviya") in the Russian Empire. The total number of conscripts was uniform for all populations (four conscripts per each thousand subjects); however, the actual recruitment was implemented by the localqahals and so a disproportionate number of Jewish conscripts were underage.[5]
In the aftermath of the Polish uprising of 1831, children of political prisoners and boys on the streets of captured cities often wereabducted. They placed in cantonist schools, with the intent of their Russification,[11] seeIncorporation of Polish children into the Imperial Russian Army (1831–1832) for more.
The vast majority of Jews entered theRussian Empire with the territories acquired as the result of the lastpartitions of Poland of the 1790s; theircivil rights were severely restricted (seePale of Settlement). Most lacked knowledge of the officialRussian language. Before 1827, Jews were doubly taxed en lieu of being obligated to serve in the army[12] and their inclusion was supposed to alleviate this burden. However, the number of recruits reduced the number of young men that could go into the workforce, and this in combination with political restrictions led to widespread destitution.
Russia was divided into northern, southern, eastern, and western "conscription zones" and the levy was announced annually for only one of them. The Pale of Jewish settlement was outside conscription in the fallow years, so the conscription in general and of cantonists in particular occurred once every four years, except during theCrimean War, when conscription was annual. The first 1827 draft involved some 1,800 Jewish conscripts; by theqahal's decision half of them were children. In 1843 the conscription system was extended to the Kingdom of Poland that was previously exempt from it.
The 'decree of August 26, 1827' made Jews liable for military service, and allowed their conscription between the ages of twelve and twenty-five. Every four years, the Jewish community had to supply four recruits per thousand of the population. Strict quotas were imposed on all communities and theqahals were given the unpleasant task of implementing conscription within the Jewish communities. Since the merchant-guild members, agricultural colonists, factory mechanics, clergy, and all Jews with secondary education were exempt, and the wealthybribed their way out of having their children conscripted, fewer potential conscripts were available; the adopted policy deeply sharpened internal Jewish social tensions. Seeking to protect the socio-economic and religious integrity of Jewish society, theqahals did their best to include “non-useful Jews” in the draft lists so that the heads of tax-paying middle-class families were predominantly exempt from conscription, whereas single Jews, as well as "heretics" (Haskalah-influenced individuals), paupers, outcasts, and orphaned children were drafted. They used their power to suppress protests and intimidate potential informers who sought to expose the arbitrariness of theqahal to the Russian government. In some cases, communal elders had the most threatening informers murdered (such as theUshitsa case, 1836), seemesirah.
The zoning rule was suspended during theCrimean War, when conscription became annual. During this period theqahals leaders would employ informers and kidnappers (Russian:ловчики,romanized: lovchiki,khappers), as many potential conscripts preferred to run away rather than voluntarily submit. In the case of unfulfilled quotas, younger boys of eight and even younger were frequently taken.
All cantonists were institutionally underfed, and encouraged to steal food from the local population, in emulation of theSpartan character building. On one occasion in 1856, a Jewish cantonist, Khodulevich, managed to steal the Tsar's own watch during military games atUman. Not only was he not punished, but he was given a reward of 25 roubles for his prowess.[15][16]
The boys in cantonist schools were given extensive training in Russian grammar (and sometimes literature), and mathematics, in particular geometry necessary in naval and artillery service. Those who showed aptitude for music were trained in singing and instrumental music, as the Imperial Army had a large demand for military wind bands and choirs. Some cavalry regiments maintained equestrian bands oftorban players, and cantonist schools supplied these as well. Some cantonist schools also prepared firearms mechanics, veterinarians for cavalry, and administrators ("auditors").
The official policy was to encourage theirconversion to thestate religion ofOrthodox Christianity and Jewish boys were coerced tobaptism. Askosher food was unavailable, they were faced with the necessity of abandoning ofJewish dietary laws. PolishCatholic boys were subject to similar pressure to convert and assimilate as the Russian Empire was hostile to Catholicism and Polish nationalism. Initially conversions were few, but after the escalation of missionary activities in the cantonist schools in 1844, about one third of all Jewish cantonists would have undergone conversion.
In the era ofArakcheev'smilitary settlements (1809–1831), indigenous peasants who fell within the territory of a military settlement were subject to incorporation into the military in various ways. In particular, indigenous children (under the age of 18) were considered military cantonists and divided into three age groups: minor (under the age of 7), middle (ages 8–12), and senior, with the latter group assigned to the military school of the settlement. Minors stayed with the parents, while minor orphans were transferred to military settlers, with an award of 10roubles. All male newborns automatically became cantonists. Later it turned out that instead of 11 years, 8 years of military training were enough. Correspondingly, the age groups were changed: under 10, under 14, and under 18.[17]
In the aftermath of the Polish uprising of 1831, children of political prisoners and boys on the streets of captured cities were oftenabducted, and placed in cantonist schools forRussification:[11] seeIncorporation of Polish children into the Imperial Russian Army (1831–1832) for more.
For all cantonists, their 25-year term of service began after they reached the age of 18 and were recruited into the army.
Discriminatory regulations ensured that unconverted Jews were held back in their army promotions. According toBenjamin Nathans,
... the formal incorporation of Jews into Nicolas I's army was quickly compromised by laws distinguishing Jewish from non-Jewish soldiers. Less than two years after the 1827 decree on conscription, Jews were barred from certain elite units, and beginning in 1832 they were subject to separate, more stringent criteria for promotion, which required that they "distinguish themselves in combat with the enemy."[18]
Jews who refused to convert were barred from ascending above the rank of "унтер-офицер" i.e.NCO; only eight exceptions were recorded during the 19th century.[citation needed] These restrictions were not lifted until theFebruary Revolution in 1917.
Some baptized cantonists eventually reached high ranks in the Imperial Army and Navy; among them were generals Arnoldi, Zeil; admirals Kaufman, Sapsay, Kefali.
The cantonists' fate was sometimes described byYiddish andRussian literature classics.
Alexander Herzen in hisMy Past and Thoughts described his somber encounter with Jewish cantonists. While being convoyed to his exile in 1835 atVyatka, Herzen met a unit of emaciated Jewish cantonists, some eight years old, who were marched toKazan. Their (sympathetic) officer complained that a third had already died.[19]
Nikolai Leskov described underage Jewish cantonists in his 1863 story "The Musk-Ox" (Ovtsebyk).
Judah Steinberg described underage Jewish cantonists in his novel "In Those Days" (English translation in 1915, from the Hebrew).[20]
The agony of Polish children incorporated into the Imperial Russian Army was presented inJuliusz Słowacki'snarrative poemAnhelli.
The cantonist policy was abolished by TsarAlexander II's decree on 26 August 1856, in the aftermath of the Russian defeat in theCrimean War, which made evident the dire necessity for the modernisation of the Russian military forces. Nonetheless, the drafting of children lasted through 1859.[21] All unconverted cantonists and recruits under the age of 20 were returned to their families. The underage converted cantonists were given to their godparents. However the implementation of the abolition took nearly 3 years.
It is estimated that between 30,000 and 70,000 Jewish boys served as cantonists, their numbers were disproportionately high in relation to the total number of cantonists. Jewish boys comprised about 20% of cantonists at the schools inRiga andVitebsk, and as much as 50% atKazan andKiev schools. A general estimate for the years 1840–1850 seems to have been about 15%. In general Jews comprised a disproportionate number of recruits (ten for every thousand of the male population as opposed to seven out of every thousand),[22] the number was tripled during theCrimean War (1853–1856).
At the conclusion of the conscription term, former cantonists were allowed to live and own land anywhere in the Empire, outside thePale of Settlement. The earliestJewish communities in Finland were Jewish cantonists who had completed their service. The rate of conversion was generally high, at about one third, as was eventual intermarriage. Most never returned to their homes.[23]
Jewish cantonist recruits in 1843–1854, according to statistics of the Russian War Ministry. Only in the eleven years listed below – the total of 29,115 children were conscripted. Basing on these data, it was estimated that between 1827 and 1856, there were over 50,000 of them.[5]
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