| Bellona | |
|---|---|
Goddess of War, Destruction, Conquest, and Bloodlust | |
 A bust of Bellona byJan Cosijn, a 1697 victory celebration over a Brussels doorway | |
| Symbol | Militaryhelmet and torch |
| Temples | Temple of Bellona, Rome;Temple of Bellona, Ostia |
| Genealogy | |
| Parents | Jupiter andJuno |
| Siblings | Mars,Vulcan,Juventas,Discordia,Lucina |
| Consort | Mars |
| Equivalents | |
| Greek | Enyo |
Bellona (IPA:[bɛlˈloːna]) is anancient Roman goddess of war. She is generally characterized as embodying a type of destructive and brutal side of warfare. Her main attribute is the militaryhelmet worn on her head; she often holds a sword, spear, or shield, and brandishes a torch or whip as she rides into battle in afour-horse chariot. Bellona had many temples throughout theRoman Empire,[1] one of which served as a site for Senate meetings prior to the reign ofAugustus. Her iconography was extended by painters and sculptors following theRenaissance.
The name of the goddess of warBellōna stems from an earlierDuellona,[2] itself a derivative ofOld Latinduellum ('war, warfare'), which likewise turned intobellum inClassical Latin.[3]
The etymology ofduellum remains obscure. LinguistGeorges-Jean Pinault has proposed a derivation from*duenelo- ('quite good, quite brave'), areconstructeddiminutive of the wordduenos, attested on aneponymous inscription as an early Old Latin antecedent of the wordbonus ('good'). According to linguistMichiel de Vaan, the use of*duenelo- "in the context of war (bella acta, bella gesta) could be understood as a euphemism, ultimately yielding a meaning 'action of valour, war' for the nounbellum."[3]
Archaeological evidence confirms that the Bellona dates back to at least the 4th-century BCE,[4] as the earliest mention of this goddess derives from aCampanianpatera dating to this period upon which is painted the phrase "Belolai pocolom" ("cup of Bellona").[5][6] Given the ritual function ofpaterae, which were associated withlibation, it is likely that this artifact was involved in some religious activity However, according to Poplacean, due to the near omnipresence of libation throughout Roman religious life, it is difficult to draw any deeper conclusions regarding the function of this cup.[4] Whereas the exact findspot of the artifact is unknown, the classicistMary Beard argues that the location of its provenance indicates that it was not a dedication, as it was not uncovered within the temple itself. Beard instead suggests that it may have functioned as a temple souvenir, perhaps removed from the site of the temple.[7]
The earliest known artistic portrayal of the deity appears upon this cup: It depicts the deity—according to the archaeologist Meghan Poplacean—with a long neck, a "calm" and "demure" expression, hair tied atop her head, and several curls of hair.[5] This portrayal is slightly unusual; in later art, Bellona is almost exclusively depicted with armor, and she largely lacks the unkempt appearance found on this cup.[7] The lines in her hair have been interpreted as representations ofsnakes, which could indicate early associations between Bellona and theFuries, with whom the goddess was frequently associated in later Imperial art.[5] It is perhaps possible that this design was influenced by the Greek divinityEnyo, with whom Bellona was equated.[8] Poplacean, however, argues that—on this cup—the design of Bellona is unremarkable, and her traits are typical of other 4th-century BCE artistic portrayals of Italian goddesses. According to Poplacean, since such lines appear on numerous other contemporary Italian artworks, it is more likely that they serve as a generic symbol for hair curls rather than any unique characteristic particular to Bellona.[4]
Bellona is largely characterized as an embodiment of the carnage and brutality of war.[9] She was identified withNerio, the consort of the war godMars, and later with the Greek war goddessEnyo.[2][10] In thePunica ofSilius Italicus, a 1st-century CE Roman author, Bellona is depicted as holding thereins of thechariot ofMars,[11] an image possibly influenced by the role of Enyo as the charioteer ofAres.[12] The 1st-century BCE poetVirgil, in hisAeneid, mentions Bellona as part of anekphrasis describing the shield ofAeneas: She is—within this passage—mentioned alongside the goddessDiscordia.[13] This section of theAeneid may parallel another verse fromIliad, in which the shield ofAchilles is also—in an ekphrasis—associated with chaotic goddesses such asKer andEris.[9] However, according to the classicist John Serrati, it is possible that Bellona was not viewed as a wholly negative entity, as—in the prologue to his playAmphitryon—the 3rd-century BCE playwrightPlautus lists Bellona alongsideNeptune, Virtus,Victoria, and Mars,[14] all of whom were deities with positive connotations.[15] Moreover, Serrati suggests that the Romans did not necessarily view war—and therefore Bellona—as exclusively odious: The wordbellum ("war") itself is possibly related to the description of warfare as "bella acta" ("valorous deeds").[15]
Literary depictions of Bellona often emphasize the booming noise and excessive gore accompanying her entry into battle:[16] The 1st-century BCE poetHorace, in hisSatires,[17] mentions the "thunder of Bellona, who delights in bloodshed" andValerius Flaccus, a 1st-century Roman poet, writes "above the open portals appeared Bellona with bare flank, her brazen weapons clanging as she moved."[18] Generally, Bellona and her weapons are covered in blood:[16] Lucan describes the goddess wielding a "bloody whip" ("sanguinem flagellum"[19]) andOvid, a 1st-century BCE Roman author, writes "But their cries are drowned in the clash of arms and the groans of dying men; while Bellona drenches and pollutes with blood the sacred home, and ever renews the strife."[20] According to Serrati, the motif of her blood-soaked weapons may indicate a perception of the goddess as permanently locked in combat, and therefore without the ability to wash away the blood and thus symbolically remove herself from battle.[16]
Beside theTemple of Bellona in Rome was the war column (columna bellica), which represented non-Roman territory. To declare war on a distant state, a javelin was thrown over the column by one of the priests concerned with diplomacy (fetiales) in a modification of the archaic practice, from Roman territory toward the direction of the enemy land and this symbolical attack was considered the opening of war.[21] The Temple of Bellona also served as a common location forSenate meetings: Both the 1st-century BCE Roman statesmanCicero and the 1st-century BCE Roman historianLivy utilized the same term—frequens ("filled, frequent")—to describe the gathering of Senators within this location.[22][23][24] Poplacean suggests that, in particular, the Temple of Bellona served as the standard site for the discussion of wartime matters by the Roman senate.[4] Moreover, since the site was located outside of thepomerium—a line of demarcation surrounding Rome—it allowed Senators to meet with and award triumphs to generals holdingimperium, who were prohibited from entering the crossing the boundaries of the city.[25] Given the various political functions associated with the temple, Poplacean proposes that the Bellona may have overseen the act of initiating and conducting war in Rome. It was under her supervision where war was officially declared, the Senate discussions concerning wartime decisions were held, and the bequeathment or denial of a triumph was granted—an act that, according to Poplacean, was linked to the conclusion of a war in Rome.[26] The involvement of Bellona within Senate activities may imply that the goddess was not exclusively considered a personification of chaos and savagery but instead possessed a more administrative side.[27]
EmperorAugustus (r. 27 BCE – 14 CE) constructed theTheatre of Marcellus near the site of the Temple of Bellona, leaving only a narrow opening between the walls of the two structures. Therefore, it is possible that any future triumphal processions were unable to pass through the temple and were instead redirected through the theatre.[28] Moreover, Augustus also decreed that Senate discussions regarding wartime matters or triumphs ought to occur—not in the Temple of Bellona—but in the temple toMars Ultor, which Augustus himself had constructed.[29][30] Poplacean suggests that Augustus may have intentionally sought to mitigate the prominence of the temple and its goddess, as Bellona naturally symbolized the prior period of pervasive civil wars during the final decades of the Roman Republic.[31] In contemporary literature, she was frequently associated with failedmarriage, itself a common metaphorical symbol denoting war in Roman culture.[32] Two 1st-century BCE poets,Virgil andOvid, portray Bellona appearing at ill-fatedweddings:Virgil depicts Bellona as thebridesmaid ("pronuba") ofLavinia and Ovid describes Bellona appearing at the wedding ofPerseus andAndromeda.[33][34] Another Roman author, the 1st-century CE poetStatius, depicts Bellona as a torchbearer at the wedding ofHelen.[35][32] The 1st-century Greek historianPlutarch suggests that the Roman military leader anddictatorSulla—who was himself involved in acivil war—may have propitiated the goddess Bellona.[9] Though, Plutarch also states this goddess may have beenLuna orMinerva and was "borrowed from theCappadocians."[36]
Bellona was the only female deity in Republican Rome with links to warfare,[37] and she was perhaps otherwise associated with traits perceived as masculine by the Romans. In some ancient Roman inscriptions, she was associated withMars andVirtus, the latter of which exemplified martial valor in ancient Rome.[10] For instance, one text fromNovara authored by an individual named Lucius Petronius Callistratus is dedicated to "Virtuti Bellonae."[38]Lactantius, a 3rd-century CERoman Christian author, writes that the god Virtus was also known as Bellona by Roman pagans.[39] The Roman authorPomponius Porphyrio claims that Bellona was equated by some with theSabine goddessVacuna, although others identified Vacuna withMinerva orDiana.[40] According to the Poplacean, it is probable that the purported connections between the Sabines and Bellona represent a particular Roman perception of the Sabine people as embodying traditional Roman standards of masculinity and a distant, hardier, and more rustic past.[41] Poplacean further argues that the supposed "Sabine" origins of Bellona may reflect a later attempt to deepen her ties to theClaudia family, a family supposedly of Sabine origin to which belongedAppius Claudius Caecus, who constructed aTemple of Bellona inRome.[41]
Serrati, however, argues that Bellona was not necessarily a particularly masculine war goddess, and that her warlike persona was not incongruent with her feminine gender.[42] The Romans perceived war as inherently vindicative—the official declaration of war, a ritual performed under the auspices of Bellona, was—according to the 1st-century BCE Roman historianLivy—the method by which the ancientLatins sought "redress" ("repetitae res").[43] Women were depicted as more vengeful in Roman culture, with prominent women in Roman mythology including individuals such as Lucretia, who declared vengeance uponSextus Tarquinius following her rape,[44] andDido, who sought vengeance uponAeneas following his abandonment of their relationship.[45] Such cultural depictions of women perhaps provided the impetus for the existence of a female war goddess, who possibly personified the notion of war as just recompense.[46] Furthermore, in Roman society, women were often portrayed as reckless and irrational:[47] In the Plautine playCasina, the character of Pardalisca warns her master and his wife about the slave Casina, exclaiming "go away from her, please, so that she doesn’t do you any harm in her rage. Take the sword away from that girl! She has no control over her mind."[48] The perception that women were in some way chaotic may have motivated the creation of a female war deity who herself represented battlefield frenzy.[49]
Certain temples ofCybele may have also featured worship of Bellona: InCorfinum, a temple to the former goddess also included a statue of Bellona,[50] and Bellona had a temple by the sanctuary of Magna Mater inOstia.[51] There is also evidence of geographic proximity between temples of Bellona and temples of eastern deities:Cassius Dio, a 2nd-century CE Roman historian, mentions that—whilst attempting to destroy a temple ofIsis andSerapis—a nearby temple of Bellona ("Ἐνυεῖόν") was accidentally demolished.[52][53] TheBellonarii, a group of priests dedicated to Bellona, would wound their own arms or legs as a sacrifice to her.[54] This ritual is reminiscent of the rites of theGalli, who were priests of Cybele that also injured themselves as part of religious practice. Both theBellonarii and theGalli are mentioned alongside each other in several Roman inscriptions describing these ceremonies: One text fromMainz states, "quomodo galli / bellonari(i) magal[i] sibi sanguin[em] ferventem fundunt ("In that way theGalli,Bellonarii, andMegali pour out their own fervent blood")."[55][56]Lucan, a 1st-century CE Roman poet, writes "Tum, quos sectis Bellona lacertis Saeva movet, cecinere deos, crinemque rotantes Sanguineum populis ulularunt tristia Galli" ("the worshippers who gash their arms, inspired by fierce Bellona chanted of heaven’s wrath, and the Galli whirled round their gory locks and shrieked disaster to the nations").[57] As a consequence of her acquisition of eastern characteristics, she perhaps came to be viewed with the same disdain that many Romans held for the eastern portions of the empire. In hisSatires, the 2nd-century CE Roman poetJuvenal describes "frenzied Bellona" ("furentis Bellonae") accompanying Cybele ("matrisque deum," "mother of the gods").[58] These gods are in turn followed by a procession of eastern deities such asIsis orAnubis andJewish priestesses,[58] all of whom are castigated with xenophobic stereotypes regarding these regions found in the Roman world.[53]
Her temple in Rome was dedicated in 296 BCE near theCircus Flaminius byAppius Claudius Caecus, duringthe war with the Etruscans and Samnites.[2] This temple was the first location to have decorative shields dedicated to mortals hung in a holy place. Appius Claudius hung the shields and dedicated them to his family.[59] Later, in 290 BCE,Publius Cornelius Rufus constructed another temple to Bellona following his victory against theSamnite people.[4] Because she was widely believed to be a volatile goddess, she was rarely worshipped openly and most of her worshippers preferred to quietly assuage her.[12] Despite their subtlety, evidence of her worship can be found throughoutRome. At least seveninscriptions that are affiliated with the worship of Bellona have been found, one of which—an early text found in theForum of Augustus—harkens back to the time of the war with Pyrrhus. Five of the inscriptions are found around theAedem Bellonae (a shrine of Bellona's) and the other two inscriptions are damaged.[10] The worship of her was not limited to Rome, however. Bellona had a temple as far north asYork,England, where the church of St. Peter currently stands.[60]
Classical allusions to Bellona later appear inShakespeare's plays in the appropriate context of warrior characters:Hotspur describes the goddess as "the fire-eyed maid of smoky war", for example,[61] andMacbeth is referred to as "Bellona's bridegroom", that is to say, the equivalent of Mars.[62] In more modern times,Adam Lindsay Gordon dedicated an energeticSwinburnean evocation of the "false goddess" who leads men astray in his poem "Bellona", published in Australia in 1867.[63] She also figures inArthur Graeme West'sWorld War I poem "The Traveller". There the poet describes himself as marching toward the front line in the company of Art, the godPan, and the works ofWalter Pater. Meeting Bellona as they approach the fighting, one by one the pleasurable companions are forced to flee before the violence of war, until the goddess rejoices in having him to herself.[64]
Bellona appears in the prologue ofRameau's opera,Les Indes Galantes (1735), in which the call of love ultimately triumphs over that of war.[65] In a Bachdramma per musica performed two years before,Tönet, ihr Pauken! Erschallet, Trompeten! BWV 214, the goddess even puts aside her usual ferocity in order to congratulateMaria Josepha of Austria, Princess Elector of Saxony and Queen of Poland, on her birthday on 8 December 1733.[66]
She retains her harsh aspect in "Prometheus Absolved" byGiovanni Ambrogio Migliavacca (1718–1795), however. In this cantata celebrating the birth of theArchduchess Isabella in 1762, the deities sit in judgement onPrometheus, some arguing for clemency, while Bellona and others demand rigour.[67] She also plays her proper part in the 'heroic cantata' created by the composerFrancesco Bianchi and the librettistLorenzo da Ponte, entitled "The Wedding of the Thames and Bellona" (Le nozze del Tamigi e Bellona). This was performed in London to mark the British naval victory over the Spanish at theBattle of Cape St. Vincent (1797).[68]
Bellona is commonly portrayed wearing a plumed helmet and dressed in armour, or at least abreastplate with a skirt beneath. In her hand she carries a spear, shield, or other weapons, and occasionally, she sounds atrumpet for the attack. Anciently, she was associated with the wingedVictory, holding a laurel crown in her hand, a statue of whom she sometimes carries; when she appears on war memorials she may hold that attribute.
Examples of such an armoured figure appear in the 1633 painting attributed toRembrandt in theMetropolitan Museum of Art,[69] and statues byJohann Baptist Straub (1770) andJohann Wilhelm Beyer (1773–80). In the latter, she appears with the godJanus, since both were associated with the Roman ceremonies of declaring war. In the case of Janus, the doors to his temple were left open during the whole period of hostilities.
Straub's statue (below) has agorgon head on her shield to instil terror in her enemies, as does the Rembrandt painting, although this was added later, probably as a response to other examples of this new iconographical departure.[70] In the bust byBertram Mackennal she wears a gorgon mounted on her helmet, while in other depictions it is on the breastplate.Jean-Léon Gérôme takes the representation of the horror of war even further in his glazed bust of the goddess (1892). Not only is she wearing a head about her neck, but the fierce demeanour of the screaming face, surmounted by an angular winged helmet, makes her resemble a gorgon herself.[71]
Another common innovation was Bellona’s association with cannons, as in the drawing by Hans Krieg (1590–1645)[72] and the 1700 ceiling fresco at Hammerschloss Schmidmühlen byHans Georg Asam (1649–1711).[73] An early Dutch engraving in a series of prints depictingPersonifications of Industrial and Professional Life suggests that it is this goddess who inspires the invention of war materiels, showing her seated in a factory workshop with all manner of arms at her feet (plate 6, see the Gallery below). In the fresco by Constantino Brumidi in theU.S. Capitol (1855–60), her image is updated. There she is shown standing next to anartillery piece and has the stars and stripes on her shield.
Not all representations of Bellona wear armour. The statues byAlvise Tagliapietra at St. Petersburg (c.1710) and that at theJ. Paul Getty Museum byAugustin Pajou (1775/85)[74] are largely naked, although otherwise wearing or carrying some of the other attributes of the goddess. There are Classical references that sanction this, however. InGaius Valerius Flaccus'Argonautica, for example, appears the description "Bellona with bare flank, her brazen weapons clanging as she moved" (3. 60).[75] A further poetic reference taken up by a painter occurs inLouis Jean François Lagrenée's "Bellona Presenting the Reins of his Horses to Mars" (1766). This illustrates a speech fromClaudian'sIn Ruffinum where Mars requests "Let Bellona bring my helmet and Terror guide the reins" (Fer galleam Bellona mihi, nexusque rotarum tende Pavor).[76]Jan van Mieris’ allegorical painting of "Wisdom restraining Bellona" (1685) is also poetic. There the seated figure of Wisdom clasps the right hand of the helmeted goddess, who is turning to leave, her cloak fluttering behind her and her shield held high in her outstretched left hand.[77]
As well as having a decorative function, representations of the goddess had a public function too. Batholomaeus Spranger's "Bellona Leading the Imperial Armies against the Turks" (see above) played its part in Austria's anti-Turkish propaganda during theLong Turkish War. A later phase of the continuing conflict, culminating in victory at thebattle of Zenta in 1697, is marked byJan Cosijn's celebratory doorway in Brussels in what now is known as the Maison de Bellone, at the centre of which presides the helmeted bust of the goddess surrounded by military standards and cannons.[78]
A dynastic political statement is made in"Marie de Medici as Bellona" (1622/5), designed byPeter Paul Rubens for her public rooms in theLuxembourg Palace. He represents her there as a wielder of political power at a time when it, in fact, had waned.[79] She is standing with armour, cannons, and muskets at her feet, and her triumphs are underlined by emblems of victory. She carries a small statue of the winged goddess in her right hand, a smaller winged figure is mounted below the plumes of her helmet, whilecupids hover above her, holding alaurel crown. Her portrayal contrasts with Rembrandt's depiction of Bellona with the homely features of an ordinary Dutchwoman. This makes an anti-imperial statement, with the assurance that the newDutch Republic is ready to defend itself, particularly against Spain, during theThirty Years' War.[70]
Auguste Rodin's sculpture of a head of Bellona (1879) originally was created for a monument to theFrench Third Republic and shows even more belligerence. Modelled on his mistressRose Beuret while in a bad mood, the head is drawn back in proud anger, turning in dynamic movement to look along the line of her right shoulder.[80] Defence in war is the message ofGeorg Kolbe's Bellona fountain inWuppertal. Originally commissioned in 1915, it depicted the helmeted goddess carrying a sword in her left hand and inspiring a kneeling young man. The statue was not erected until 1922, by which time it functioned as a war memorial.[81]
The use of Bellona in such structures was well established before this, dating back to her prominent use in Jean Cosyn's doorway. The Temple of Bellona, designed byWilliam Chambers forKew Gardens in 1760, was projected as a celebration of the Anglo-Hanoverian war effort during theSeven Years' War and eventually housed plaques honouring the regiments that served in it.[82] These, however, related primarily to remembrance of victory rather than of the fallen. It was not until a century afterward that the French-Canadian victims of the Seven Years War were commemorated by a monument atQuebec. Atop a tall column on the site of the battlefield, Bellona looks down, carrying a shield and laurel crown in her right hand.[83] The statue was presented byJérôme-Napoléon in 1862 as a gesture of reconciliation.[84]
The Australian dead from theGallipoli Campaign were commemorated by a bronze bust of Bellona byBertram Mackennal, a former student of Rodin. This he presented to the Australian government in Canberra as a memorial in 1916.[85] As in Rodin's bust, the helmeted head is turned to the right, but the breasts are more in evidence. The fallen generally make their appearance later in such structures where Bellona is present. They accompany the sword-wielding goddess inDouglas Tilden's monument to the California Volunteers during theSpanish–American War of 1898;[86] in theBiałystok memorial to the dead in thePolish–Soviet War in 1920, she stands behind a soldier and holds aloft a laurel crown.[87]
The Bellona on the First World War victory archway atWaterloo station is particularly memorable, however. Beneath the demonic sword-brandishing wraith with her gorgon necklace, cower and mourn, not the dead, but the overlooked living victims of war.[88]
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!["Français : Statue représentant Bellone, au sommet du monument des Braves, à l'entrée du parc des Braves, à Québec (Québec, Canada). La statue a été offerte par le prince Jérôme-Napoléon en 1862. Elle est haute d'environ trois mètres et forme le sommet du monument haut de 22 mètres. Elle a été installée, et le monument inauguré, le 19 octobre 1863. Elle est peut-être inspirée d'un croquis d'Eugène-Étienne Taché [1]"](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fcommons.wikimedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBellone_Monument_des_Braves.jpg){kind=link}
