| Peking opera | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Peking opera in Shanghai, 2014 | |
| Etymology | From Peking, thepostal romanization ofBeijing |
| Other names | Beijing opera, Pekingese opera, Jing opera, Jingju, Jingxi, Guoju |
| Stylistic origins | Hui opera,Kunqu,Qinqiang,Han opera |
| Peking Opera | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Country | China |
| Reference | 418 |
| Region | Asia and the Pacific |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 2010 (5th session) |
| List | Representative |
 UNESCO Cultural Heritage | |
Peking opera, orBeijing opera (Chinese:京劇;pinyin:Jīngjù), is the dominant form ofChinese opera, which combines instrumental music, vocal performance, mime, martial arts, dance and acrobatics. It arose inBeijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became fully developed and recognized by the mid-19th century.[1] The form was extremely popular in the Qing court and has come to be regarded as one of the cultural treasures of China.[2] Major performance troupes are based in Beijing,Tianjin andShanghai.[3] The art form is also preserved inTaiwan, where it is also known asGuójù (Chinese:國劇;lit. 'National opera'). It has also spread to other regions such as theUnited States andJapan.[4]
Peking opera features four main role types,sheng (gentlemen),dan (women),jing (rough men), andchou (clowns). Performing troupes often have several of each variety, as well as numerous secondary and tertiary performers. With their elaborate and colorful costumes, performers are the only focal points on Peking opera characteristically sparse stage. They use the skills of speech, song, dance and combat in movements that are symbolic and suggestive, rather than realistic. Above all else, the skill of performers is evaluated according to the beauty of their movements. Performers also adhere to a variety of stylistic conventions that help audiences navigate the plot of the production.[5] The layers of meaning within each movement must be expressed in time with music. The music of Peking opera can be divided into thexīpí (西皮) andèrhuáng (二黄) styles. Melodies includearias, fixed-tune melodies andpercussion patterns.[6] The repertoire of Peking opera includes over 1,400 works, which are based onChinese history,folklore and, increasingly, contemporary life.[7]
Traditional Peking opera was denounced as "feudalistic" and "bourgeois" during theCultural Revolution (1966–1976) and replaced mostly with therevolutionary operas until the period's end.[8] After the Cultural Revolution, these transformations were largely undone. In recent years, Peking opera has responded to sagging audience numbers by attempting reforms, including improving performance quality, adapting new performance elements, shortening works, and performing new and original plays.
"Peking opera" is the English term for the art form; the term entered theOxford English Dictionary in 1953.[9] "Beijing opera" is a more recent equivalent.
In China, the art form has been known by many names at different times and places. The earliest Chinese name,Pihuang, was a combination of thexipi anderhuang melodies. As it increased in popularity, its name becameJingju orJingxi, which reflected its start in the capital city (Chinese:京;pinyin:Jīng). From 1927 to 1949, when Beijing was known asBeiping, Peking opera was known asPingxi orPingju to reflect this change. Finally, with the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the name of the capital city was reverted to Beijing, and the formal name of this theatre in mainland China was established asJingju. TheTaiwanese name for this type of opera,Guoju, or "national opera", reflectsdisputes over the true seat of the Chinese government.[10]
Peking opera was born when the Four Great Anhui Troupes brought Hui opera, or what is now calledHuiju, in 1790 to Beijing, for the eightieth birthday of theQianlong Emperor[11] on 25 September.[12] It was originally staged for the court and only made available to the public later. In 1828, several famous Hubei troupes arrived in Beijing and performed jointly with Anhui troupes. The combination gradually formed Peking opera's melodies. Peking opera is generally regarded as having fully formed by 1845.[1] Although it is called Peking opera (Beijing theatre style), its origins are in the greater areas of the capital of Anhui province (the City ofAnqing), including southernAnhui and easternHubei, which share the similar dialect ofXiajiang Mandarin (Lower Yangtze Mandarin). Peking opera's two mainmelodies,Xipi andErhuang.Xipi literally means "skin puppet show", referring to the puppet show that originated inShaanxi province. Chinese puppet shows always involve singing. Much dialogue is also carried out in an archaic form of Mandarin Chinese, in which theZhongyuan Mandarin dialects of Henan and Shaanxi are closest. This form of Mandarin is recorded in the bookZhongyuan Yinyun. It also absorbed music from other operas and localZhili musical art forms. Some scholars believe that theXipi musical form was derived from the historicQinqiang, while many conventions of staging, performance elements, andaesthetic principles were retained fromKunqu, the form that preceded it as court art.[13][14][15]
Thus, Peking opera is not a monolithic form, but rather a coalescence of many older forms. However, the new form also creates its own innovations. The vocal requirements for all of the major roles were greatly reduced for Peking opera. The Chou, in particular, rarely has a singing part in Peking opera, unlike the equivalent role inKunqu style. Themelodies that accompany each play were also simplified, and are played with different traditional instruments than in earlier forms. Perhaps most noticeably, true acrobatic elements were introduced with Peking opera.[14] The form grew in popularity throughout the 19th century. The Anhui troupes reached their peak of excellence in the middle of the century and were invited to perform in the court of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom that had been established during theTaiping Rebellion. Beginning in 1884, theEmpress Dowager Cixi became a regular patron of Peking opera, cementing its status over earlier forms likeKunqu.[2] The popularity of Peking opera has been attributed to the simplicity of the form, with only a few voices and singing patterns. This allowed anyone to sing the arias themselves.[16][17]
At the time of its growth in the late nineteenth century, albums became used to display aspects of stage culture, including makeup and costumes of performers.[18]
Peking opera was initially an exclusively male pursuit. There were bans on female performers and major limitations on female audience members, so the art form mainly catered to the tastes of male audience members.[19] Qing dynasty emperors repeatedly banned female performers beginning withKangxi Emperor in 1671. The last ban was by theQianlong Emperor who banned all female performers in Beijing in 1772.[19] The appearance of women on the stage began unofficially during the 1870s. Female performers began to impersonate male roles and declared equality with men. They were given a venue for their talents when Li Maoer, himself a former Peking-opera performer, founded the first female Peking-opera troupe in Shanghai. By 1894, the first commercial venue showcasing female performance troupes appeared in Shanghai. This encouraged other female troupes to form, which gradually increased in popularity. As a result, theatre artist Yu Zhenting petitioned for the lifting of the ban after the founding of theRepublic of China in 1911. This was accepted, and the ban was lifted in 1912, although male Dan continued to be popular after this period.[20]
After theChinese Civil War, Peking opera became a focal point of identity for both involved parties. When theChinese Communist Party came to power in mainland China in 1949, the newly formed government moved to bring art into line with Communist ideology, and "to make art and literature a component of the whole revolutionary machine".[21] To this end, dramatic works without Communist themes were considered subversive, and were ultimately banned during theCultural Revolution (1966–1976).[22]
The use of opera as a tool to transmit communist ideology reached its climax in the Cultural Revolution, under the purview ofJiang Qing, wife ofMao Zedong. The "model operas" were considered one of the great achievements of the Cultural Revolution, and were meant to express Mao's view that "art must serve the interests of the workers, peasants, and soldiers and must conform to proletarian ideology."[8]
Among theeight model plays eventually retained during that time were five Peking operas.[23] Notable among these operas wasThe Legend of the Red Lantern, which was approved as a concert with piano accompaniment based on a suggestion from Jiang Qing.[24] Performances of works beyond the eight model plays were allowed only in heavily modified form. The endings of many traditional plays were changed, and visible stage assistants in Peking opera were eliminated.[22] After the end of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1970s, traditional Peking opera began to be performed again. Peking opera and other theatrical art forms were a controversial subject both before and during the Twelfth National People's Congress in 1982. A study carried in thePeople's Daily revealed that over 80 percent of musical dramas staged in the country were traditional plays from the pre-Communist era, as opposed to newly written historical dramas promoting socialist values. In response, Communist party officials enacted reforms to curb liberalism and foreign influence in theatrical works.[25]
After the retreat of theRepublic of China to Taiwan in 1949, Peking opera there took on a special status of "political symbolism", in which theKuomintang government encouraged the art form over other forms of performance in an attempt to claim a position as the sole representative of Chinese culture. This often occurred at the expense of traditionalTaiwanese opera.[26][27] Due to its status as a prestigious art form with a long history, Peking opera has indeed been studied more and received more monetary support than other forms of theater in Taiwan.[28] However, there has also been a competing movement towards advocating native opera to differentiate Taiwan from the mainland. In September 1990, when the Kuomintang government participated in a state-sponsored mainland cultural event for the first time, a Taiwanese opera group was sent, possibly to emphasize "Taiwaneseness".[29]
During the second half of the 20th century, Peking opera witnessed a steady decline in audience numbers. This has been attributed both to a decrease in performance quality and an inability of the traditional opera form to capture modern life.[30] Furthermore, the archaic language of Peking opera required productions to use electronic subtitles, which hampered the development of the form. The influence of Western culture has also left the younger generations impatient with the slow pacing of Peking opera.[31] In response, Peking opera began to see reform starting in the 1980s. Such reforms have taken the form of creating a school of performance theory to increase performance quality, employing modern elements to attract new audiences, and performing new plays outside of the traditional canon. However, these reforms have been hampered by both a lack of funding and an adverse political climate that makes the performance of new plays difficult.[32]
In addition to more formal reform measures, Peking-opera troupes during the 1980s also adopted more unofficial changes. Some of those seen in traditional works have been called "technique for technique's sake". This has included the use of extended high pitch sequences by female Dan, and the addition of lengthier movement sections and percussion sequences to traditional works. Such changes have generally met with disdain from Peking-opera performers, who see them as ploys to gain immediate audience appeal. Plays with repetitive sequences have also been shortened to hold audience interest.[33] New works have naturally experienced a greater freedom to experiment. Regional, popular, and foreign techniques have been adopted, including Western-style makeup and beards and new face paint designs for Jing characters.[34] The spirit of reform continued during the 1990s. To survive in an increasingly open market, troupes like the Shanghai Peking Opera Company needed to bring traditional Peking opera to new audiences. To do this, they have offered an increasing number of free performances in public areas.[35]
There has also been a general feeling of a shift in the creative attribution of Peking-opera works. The performer has traditionally played a large role in the scripting and staging of Peking-opera works. However, perhaps following the lead of the West, Peking opera in recent decades has shifted to a more director and playwright-centered model. Performers have striven to introduce innovation in their work while heeding the call for reform from this new upper level of Peking-opera producers.[36]
ChannelCCTV-11 in mainland China is currently dedicated to broadcasting classic Chinese opera productions, including Peking opera.[37]
In addition to its presence in mainland China, Peking opera has spread to many other places. It can be found in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and overseas Chinese communities elsewhere.[38]
Mei Lanfang, one of the most famous Dan performers of all time, was also one of the greatest popularizers of Peking opera abroad. During the 1920s, he performed Peking opera in Japan. This inspired an American tour in February 1930. Although some, such as the actorOtis Skinner, believed that Peking opera could never be a success in the United States, the favorable reception of Mei and his troupe in New York City disproved this notion. The performances had to be relocated from the 49th Street Theater to the larger National Theater, and the duration of the tour extended from two weeks to five.[39][40] Mei traveled across the United States, receiving honorary degrees from theUniversity of California andPomona College. He followed this tour with a tour in the Soviet Union in 1935.[41]
The theatre department at theUniversity of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa has been home to English-languageJingju for more than twenty-five years. The school offers Asian Theatre as a focus area in its Theatre and Performance Studies program[42] and has regularJingju performances, the most recent beingLady Mu and the Yang Family Generals in 2014.[43]
TheSheng (生) is the main male role in Beijing opera. This role has numerous subtypes. Thelaosheng is a dignified older role. These characters have a gentle and cultivated disposition and wear sensible costumes. One type oflaosheng role is thehongsheng, a red-faced older male. The only twohongsheng roles areGuan Gong, the Chinese God of War, andZhao Kuang-yin, the firstSong dynasty emperor. Young male characters are known asxiaosheng. These characters sing in a high, shrill voice with occasional breaks to represent the voice changing period of adolescence. Depending on the character's rank in society, the costume of thexiaosheng may be either elaborate or simple.[44] Off-stage,xiaosheng actors are often involved with beautiful women by virtue of the handsome and young image they project.[45] Thewusheng is a martial character for roles involving combat. They are highly trained in acrobatics, and have a natural voice when singing.[44] Troupes will always have alaosheng actor. Axiaosheng actor may also be added to play roles fitting to his age. In addition to these mainSheng, the troupe will also have a secondarylaosheng.[46]
TheDan (旦) refers to any female role in Beijing opera.Dan roles were originally divided into five subtypes. Old women were played bylaodan, martial women werewudan, young female warriors weredaomadan, virtuous and elite women wereqingyi, and vivacious and unmarried women werehuadan. One of Mei Lanfang's most important contributions to Beijing opera was in pioneering a sixth type of role, thehuashan. This role type combines the status of theqingyi with the sensuality of thehuadan.[47] A troupe will have a youngDan to play main roles, as well as an olderDan for secondary parts.[48] Four examples of famousDans areMei Lanfang,Cheng Yanqiu,Shang Xiaoyun, andXun Huisheng.[49] In the early years of Beijing opera, allDan roles were played by men. Wei Changsheng, a maleDan performer in the Qing court, developed thecai ciao, or "false foot" technique, to simulate the bound feet of women and the characteristic gait that resulted from the practice. The ban on female performers also led to a controversial form of brothel, known as thexianggong tangzi, in which men paid to have sex with young boys dressed as females. The performing skills taught to the youths employed in these brothels led many of them to become professionalDan later in life.[50]
TheJing (净) is a painted face male role. Depending on the repertoire of the particular troupe, he will play either primary or secondary roles.[48] This type of role will entail a forceful character, so aJing must have a strong voice and be able to exaggerate gestures.[51] Beijing opera boasts 16 basic facial patterns, but there are over 100 specific variations. The patterns and coloring are thought to be derived from traditional Chinese color symbolism and divination on the lines of a person's face, which is said to reveal personality. Easily recognizable examples of coloring include red, which denotes uprightness and loyalty, white, which represents evil or crafty characters, and black, which is given to characters of soundness and integrity.[52] Three main types ofJing roles are often seen. These includedongchui, a loyal general with a black face who excels in singing,jiazi, a complex character played by a skilled actor, andwujing, a martial and acrobatic character.[44]
TheChou (丑) is a male clown role. TheChou usually plays secondary roles in a troupe.[48] Indeed, most studies of Beijing opera classify theChou as a minor role. The name of the role is ahomophone of theMandarin Chinese wordchou, meaning "ugly". This reflects the traditional belief that the clown's combination of ugliness and laughter could drive away evil spirits.Chou roles can be divided intoWen Chou, civilian roles such asmerchants and jailers, andWu Chou, minor military roles. TheWu Chou combines comic acting and acrobatics.Chou characters are generally amusing and likable, if a bit foolish. Their costumes range from simple for characters of lower status to elaborate, perhaps overly so, for high-status characters.Chou characters wear special face paint, calledxiaohualian, that differs from that ofJing characters. The defining characteristic of this type of face paint is a small patch of white chalk around the nose. This can represent either a mean and secretive nature or a quick wit.[44]
Beneath the whimsical persona of theChou, a serious connection to the form of Beijing opera exists. TheChou is the character most connected to theguban, the drums andclapper commonly used for musical accompaniment during performances. TheChou actor often uses theguban in solo performance, especially when performingShu Ban, light-hearted verses spoken for comedic effect. The clown is also connected to the smallgong andcymbals, percussion instruments that symbolize the lower classes and the raucous atmosphere inspired by the role. AlthoughChou characters do not sing frequently, theirarias feature large amounts ofimprovisation. This is considered a license of the role, and the orchestra will accompany theChou actor even as he bursts into an unscripted folk song. However, due to the standardization of Beijing opera and political pressure from government authorities,Chou improvisation has lessened in recent years. TheChou has a vocal timbre that is distinct from other characters, as the character will often speak in the commonBeijing dialect, as opposed to the more formal dialects of other characters.[53]
Becoming a Peking opera performer takes a long and difficult apprenticeship starting at an early age. Before the 20th century, students were often picked personally at a young age by a teacher and trained for seven years on account of the contract from the child's parents. Since the teacher fully provided for the student during this period, the student accrued a debt to his master that was later repaid through performance earnings. After 1911, training took place in more formally organized schools. Students at these schools rose as early as five o'clock in the morning for exercise. Daytime was spent learning the skills of acting and combat, and senior students performed in outside theaters in the evening. The entire group was beaten with bamboo canes if they made any mistakes during such performances. Schools with less harsh training methods began appearing in 1930, but all schools were closed in 1931 after the Japanese invasion. New schools were not opened until 1952.[54]
Performers are first trained in acrobatics, followed by singing and gestures. Several performing schools, all based on the styles of famous performers, are taught. Some examples are theMei Lanfang school, theCheng Yanqiu school, the Ma Lianliang school, and the Qi Lintong school.[55] Students previously trained exclusively in the art of performance, but modern performance schools now include academic studies as well. Teachers assess the qualifications of each student and assign them roles as primary, secondary, or tertiary characters accordingly. Students with little acting talent often become Peking opera musicians.[56] They may also serve as the supporting cast of foot soldiers, attendants, and servants that is present in every Peking-opera troupe.[48] In Taiwan, theMinistry of National Defense of the Republic of China runs a national Peking-opera training school.[57]
Peking-opera performers use four main skills. The first two are song and speech. The third is dance-acting. This includes pure dance, pantomime, and all other types of dance. The final skill is combat, which includes both acrobatics and fighting with all manner of weaponry. All of these skills are expected to be performed effortlessly, in keeping with the spirit of the art form.[58]
Peking opera follows other traditional Chinese arts in emphasizing meaning, rather than accuracy. The highest aim of performers is to put beauty into every motion. Indeed, performers are strictly criticized for lacking beauty during training.[58] Additionally, performers are taught to create a synthesis between the different aspects of Peking opera. The four skills of Peking opera are not separate, but rather should be combined in a single performance. One skill may take precedence at certain moments during a play, but this does not mean that other actions should cease.[59] Much attention is paid to tradition in the art form, and gestures, settings, music, and character types are determined by long-held convention. This includes conventions of movement, which are used to signal particular actions to the audience. For example, walking in a large circle always symbolizes traveling a long distance, and a character straightening their costume and headdress symbolizes that an important character is about to speak. Some conventions, such as the pantomimic opening and closing of doors and mounting and descending of stairs, are more readily apparent.[60][61]
Many performances deal with behaviors that occur in daily life. However, in accordance with the overriding principle of beauty, such behaviors are stylized to be presented on stage. Peking opera does not aim to accurately represent reality. Experts of the art form contrast the principles of Peking opera with the principle ofMo, mimes or imitation, that is found in western dramas. Peking opera should be suggestive, not imitative. The literal aspects of scenes are removed or stylized to better represent intangible emotions and characters.[62] The most common stylization method in Peking opera is roundness. Every motion and pose is carefully manipulated to avoid sharp angles and straight lines. A character looking upon an object above them will sweep their eyes in a circular motion from low to high before landing on the object. Similarly, a character will sweep their hand in an arc from left to right in order to indicate an object on the right. This avoidance of sharp angles extends to three-dimensional movement as well; reversals of orientation often take the form of a smooth, S-shaped curve.[63] All of these general principles of aesthetics are present within other performance elements as well.
Peking opera stages have traditionally been square platforms. The action on stage is usually visible from at least three sides. The stage is divided into two parts by an embroidered curtain called ashoujiu. Musicians are visible to the audience on the front part of the stage.[44] Traditional Peking opera stages were built above the line of sight of the viewers, but some modern stages have been constructed with higher audience seating. Viewers are always seated south of the stage. Therefore, north is the most important direction in Peking opera, and performers will immediately move to "center north" upon entering the stage. All characters enter from the east and exit from the west.[45] In line with the highly symbolic nature of Peking opera, the form uses very few props. This reflects seven centuries of Chinese performance tradition.[64] The presence of large objects is frequently indicated through conventions. The stage will almost always have a table and at least one chair, which can be turned through convention into such diverse objects as a city wall, a mountain, or a bed. Peripheral objects will often be used to signify the presence of a larger, main object. For example, a whip is used to indicate a horse and an oar symbolizes a boat.[60]
The length and internal structure of Peking-opera plays is highly variable. Prior to 1949,zhezixi, short plays or plays made up of short scenes from longer plays, were often performed. These plays usually center on one simple situation or feature a selection of scenes designed to include all four of the main Peking opera skills and showcase the virtuosity of the performers. This format has become less prevalent in recent times, but plays of one act are still performed. These short works, as well as individual scenes within longer works, are marked by an emotional progression from the beginning of the play to the end. For example, the concubine in the one act playThe Favorite Concubine Becomes Intoxicated begins in a state of joy, and then moves to anger and jealousy, drunken playfulness, and finally to a feeling of defeat and resignation. A full-length play usually has from six to fifteen or more scenes. The overall story in these longer works is told through contrasting scenes. Plays will alternate between civil and martial scenes, or scenes that involve protagonists and antagonists. There are several major scenes within the work that follow the pattern of emotional progression. It is these scenes that are usually excerpted for laterzhezixi productions. Some of the most complex plays may even have an emotional progression from scene to scene.[65]
Due to the scarcity of props in Peking opera, costumes take on added importance. Costumes function first to distinguish the rank of the character being played. Emperors and their families wear yellow robes, and high-ranking officials wear purple. The robe worn by these two classes is called amang, or python robe. It is a costume suitable for the high rank of the character, featuring brilliant colors and rich embroidery, often in the design of a dragon. Persons of high rank or virtue wear red, lower-ranking officials wear blue, young characters wear white, the old wear white, brown, or olive, and all other men wear black. On formal occasions, lower officials may wear thekuan yi, a simple gown with patches of embroidery on both the front and back. All other characters, and officials on informal occasions, wear thechezi, a basic gown with varying levels of embroidery and no jade girdle to denote rank. All three types of gowns havewater sleeves, long flowing sleeves that can be flicked and waved like water, attached to facilitate emotive gestures. Tertiary characters of no rank wear simple clothing without embroidery. Hats are intended to blend in with the rest of the costume and will usually have a matching level of embroidery. Shoes may be high or low-soled, the former being worn by characters of high rank, and the latter by characters of low rank or acrobatic characters.[66]
Qimo (stage props) is the name for all stage properties and some simple decorations. The term first occurred in theJin dynasty (266–420).Qimo includes articles of everyday life such as candlesticks, lanterns, fans, handkerchiefs, brushes, paper, ink and ink slabs, and tea and wine sets. The props also include: sedan chairs, vehicle flags, oars, and horsewhips, as well as weapons. Also employed are various articles to demonstrate environments, such as cloth backdrops to represent cities, and curtains, flags, table curtains, and chair covers. Traditionalqimo are not just imitations of real articles, but also artistic articles in their own right.[68] Flags are also frequently used on the stage. A square flag with the Chinese character for "marshal" on it, a rectangular flag with the Chinese character for "commander" on it, and a flag with the name of a certain army on it represent the location of army camps and commanders-in-chief. In addition, there are water, fire, wind, and vehicle flags. Actors shake these flags to represent waves, fire, wind, or moving vehicles.[68]
Vocal production in Peking opera is conceived of as being composed of "four levels of song": songs with music, verse recitation, prose dialogue, and non-verbal vocalizations. The conception of a sliding scale of vocalization creates a sense of smooth continuity between songs and speech. The three basic categories of vocal production technique are the use of breath (yongqi), pronunciation (fayin), and special Peking-opera pronunciation (shangkouzi).[69]
In Chinese opera, breath is based in the pubic region and supported by the abdominal muscles. Performers follow the basic principle that "strong centralized breath moves the melodic-passages" (zhong qi xing xiang). Breath is visualized as being drawn up through a central breathing cavity extending from the pubic region to the top of the head. This "cavity" must be under performers' control at all times, and they develop special techniques to control both entering and exiting air. The two major methods of taking in breath are known as "exchanging breath" (huan qi) and "stealing breath" (tou qi). "Exchanging breath" is a slow, unhurried process of breathing out old air and taking in new. It is used at moments when the performer is not under time constraint, such as during a purely instrumental musical passage or when another character is speaking. "Stealing breath" is a sharp intake of air without prior exhalation, and is used during long passages of prose or song when a pause would be undesirable. Both techniques should be invisible to the audience and take in only the precise amount of air required for the intended vocalization. The most important principle in exhalation is "saving the breath" (cun qi). Breath should not be expended all at once at the beginning of a spoken or sung passage, but rather expelled slowly and evenly over its length. Most songs and some prose contain precise written intervals for when breath should be "exchanged" or "stolen". These intervals are often marked by carats.[70]
Pronunciation is conceptualized as shaping the throat and mouth into the shape necessary to produce the desired vowel sound, and clearly articulating the initial consonant. There are four basic shapes for the throat and mouth, corresponding to four vowel types, and five methods of articulating consonants, one for each type of consonant. The four throat and mouth shapes are "opened-mouth" (kaikou), "level-teeth" (qichi), "closed-mouth" (hekou orhuokou), and "scooped-lips" (cuochun). The five consonant types are denoted by the portion of the mouth most critical to each type's production: throat, or larynx (hou); tongue (she); molars, or the jaws and palate (chi); front teeth (ya); and lips (chun).[71]
Some syllables (writtenChinese characters) have special pronunciations in Peking opera. This is due to the collaboration with regional forms andkunqu that occurred during the development of Peking opera. For example,你, meaning "you", may be pronouncedli, as it is in the Anhui dialect, rather than the Standard Chineseni.我, meaning "I" and pronouncedwo in Standard Chinese, becomesngo, as it is pronounced in the dialect ofSuzhou. In addition to pronunciation differences that are due to the influence of regional forms, the readings of some characters have been changed to promote ease of performance or vocal variety. For example,zhi,chi,shi, andri sounds do not carry well and are difficult to sustain, because they are produced far back in the mouth. Therefore, they are performed with an additionali sound, as inzhii.[72]
These techniques and conventions of vocal production are used to create the two main categories of vocalizations in Peking opera: stage speech and song.
Peking opera is performed using bothClassical Chinese andModern Standard Chinese with some slang terms added for color. The social position of the character being played determines the type of language that is used. Peking opera features three major types of stage speech (nianbai,念白). Monologues and dialogue, which make up the majority of most plays, consist of prose speeches. The purpose of prose speech is to advance the plot of the play or inject humor into a scene. They are usually short, and are performed mostly using vernacular language. However, as Elizabeth Wichmann points out, they also have rhythmic and musical elements, achieved through the "stylized articulation of monosyllabic sound units" and the "stylized pronunciation of speech-tones", respectively. Prose speeches were frequently improvised during the early period of Peking opera's development, andchou performers carry on that tradition today.[73]
The second main type of stage speech consists of quotations drawn from classical Chinese poetry. This type is rarely used in Peking opera; plays have one or two such quotations at most, and often none at all. In most instances, the use of classical poetry is intended to heighten the impact of a scene. However,Chou and more whimsicalDan characters may misquote or misinterpret the classical lines, creating a comical effect.[74]
The final category of stage speech is conventionalized stage speeches (chengshi nianbai). These are rigid formulations that mark important transition points. When a character enters for the first time, an entrance speech (shangchang) or self-introduction speech (zi bao jiamen) is given, which includes a prelude poem, a set-the-scene poem, and a prose set-the-scene speech, in that order. The style and structure of each entrance speech is inherited from earlierYuan dynasty,Ming dynasty, folk, and regional forms of Chinese opera. Another conventionalized stage speech is the exit speech, which may take the form of a poem followed by a single spoken line. This speech is usually delivered by a supporting character, and describes their present situation and state of mind. Finally, there is the recapitulation speech, in which a character will use prose to recount the story up to that point. These speeches came about as a result of thezhezixi tradition of performing only one part of a larger play.[75]
There are six main types of song lyrics in Peking opera: emotive, condemnatory, narrative, descriptive, disputive, and "shared space separate sensations" lyrics. Each type uses the same basic lyrical structure, differing only in kind and degree of emotions portrayed. Lyrics are written in couplets (lian) consisting of two lines (ju). Couplets can consist of two ten character lines, or two seven character lines. The lines are further subdivided into threedou (lit. 'pause'), typically in a 3-3-4 or 2-2-3 pattern. Lines may be "padded" with extra characters for the purpose of clarifying meaning. Rhyme is an extremely important device in Peking opera, with thirteen identified rhyme categories. Song lyrics also use the speech tones of Mandarin Chinese in ways that are pleasing to the ear and convey proper meaning and emotion. The first and second of Chinese's four tones are normally known as "level" (ping) tones in Peking opera, while the third and fourth are called "oblique" (ze). The closing line of every couplet in a song ends in a level tone.[76]
Songs in Peking opera are proscribed by a set of common aesthetic values. A majority of songs are within a pitch range of an octave and a fifth. High pitch is a positive aesthetic value, so a performer will pitch songs at the very top of their vocal range. For this reason, the idea of a song's key has value in Peking opera only as a technical tool for the performer. Different performers in the same performance may sing in different keys, requiring the accompanying musicians to constantly retune their instruments or switch out with other players. Elizabeth Wichmann describes the ideal basic timbre for Peking opera songs as a "controlled nasal tone". Performers make extensive use of vocal vibrato during songs, in a way that is "slower" and "wider" than vibrato used in Western performances. The Peking opera aesthetic for songs is summed up by the expressionzi zheng qiang yuan, meaning that the written characters should be delivered accurately and precisely, and the melodic passages should be weaving, or "round".[69]
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The accompaniment for a Peking opera performance usually consists of a small ensemble of traditional melodic and percussion instruments. The lead melodic instrument is thejinghu, a small, high-pitched, two-string spike fiddle.[77] Thejinghu is the primary accompaniment for performers during songs. Accompaniment is heterophonic – thejinghu player follows the basic contours of the song's melody, but diverges in pitch and other elements. Thejinghu often plays more notes per measure than the performer sings, and does so an octave lower. During rehearsal, thejinghu player adopts their own signature version of the song's melody, but also must adapt to spontaneous improvisations on the part of the performer due to changed performance conditions. Thus, thejinghu player must have an instinctive ability to change their performance without warning to properly accompany the performer.[78]
The second is the circular bodied plucked lute, theyueqin. Percussion instruments include thedaluo,xiaoluo, andnaobo. The player of thegu andban, a small high pitch drum andclapper, is the conductor of the entire ensemble.[79] The two main musical styles of Peking opera,Xipi andErhuang, originally differed in subtle ways. In theXipi style, the strings of thejinghu are tuned to the keys of A and D. The melodies in this style are very disjointed, possibly reflecting the style's derivation from the high and loud melodies of the Qinqiang opera of northwestern China. It is commonly used to tell joyous stories. InErhuang, on the other hand, the strings are tuned to the keys of C and G. This reflects the low, soft, and despondent folk tunes of south-centralHubei province, the style's place of origin. As a result, it is used for lyrical stories. Both musical styles have a standard meter of two beats per bar. The two musical styles share six different tempos, includingmanban (a slow tempo),yuanban (a standard, medium-fast tempo),kuai sanyan ("leading beat"),daoban ("leading beat"),sanban ("rubato beat"), andyaoban ("shaking beat"). Thexipi style also uses several unique tempos, includingerliu ("two-six"), andkuaiban (a fast tempo). Of these tempos,yuanban,manban, andkuaiban are most commonly seen. The tempo at any given time is controlled by a percussion player who acts as director.[80]Erhuang has been seen as more improvisational, andXipi as more tranquil. The lack of defined standards among performance troupes and the passage of time may have made the two styles more similar to each other today.[77]
The melodies played by the accompaniment mainly fall into three broad categories. The first is the aria. The arias of Peking opera can be further divided into those of theErhuang andXipi varieties. An example of an aria iswawa diao, an aria in theXipi style that is sung by a youngSheng to indicate heightened emotion.[81] The second type of melody heard in Peking opera is the fixed-tune melody, orqupai. These are instrumental tunes that serve a wider range of purposes than arias. Examples include the "Water Dragon Tune" (水龍吟;Shuǐlóng Yín), which generally denotes the arrival of an important person, and "Triple Thrust" (急三槍;Jí Sān Qiāng), which may signal a feast or banquet.[82] The final type of musical accompaniment is the percussion pattern. Such patterns provide context to the music in ways similar to the fixed-tune melodies. For example, there are as many as 48 different percussion patterns that accompany stage entrances. Each one identifies the entering character by their individual rank and personality.[82]
The repertoire of Peking opera includes nearly 1,400 works. The plays are mostly taken from historical novels or traditional stories about civil, political and military struggles. Early plays were often adaptations from earlier Chinese theatre styles, such askunqu. Nearly half of 272 plays listed in 1824 were derived from earlier styles.[48] Many classification systems have been used to sort the plays. Two traditional methods have existed since Peking opera first appeared in China. The oldest and most generally used system is to sort plays into civil and martial types. Civil plays focus on the relationships between characters, and feature personal, domestic, and romantic situations. The element of singing is frequently used to express emotion in this type of play. Martial plays feature a greater emphasis on action and combat skill. The two types of play also feature different arrays of performers. Martial plays predominantly feature youngsheng,jing, andchou, while civil plays have a greater need for older roles anddan. In addition to being civil or martial, plays are also classified as eitherdaxi (serious) orxiaoxi (light). The performance elements and performers used in serious and light plays greatly resemble those used in martial and civil plays, respectively. Of course, the aesthetic principle of synthesis frequently leads to the use of these contrasting elements in combination, yielding plays that defy such dichotomous classification.[83]
Since 1949, a more detailed classification system has been put into use based on thematic content and the historical period of a play's creation. The first category in this system ischuantongxi, traditional plays that were in performance before 1949. The second category isxinbian de lishixi, historical plays written after 1949. This type of play was not produced at all during the Cultural Revolution, but is a major focus today. The final category isxiandaixi, contemporary plays. The subject matter of these plays is taken from the 20th century and beyond. Contemporary productions are also frequently experimental in nature, and may incorporate Western influences.[84] In the second half of the 20th century, Western works have increasingly been adapted for Peking opera. The works ofShakespeare have been especially popular.[85] The movement to adapt Shakespeare to the stage has encompassed all forms of Chinese theatre.[86] Peking opera in particular has seen versions ofA Midsummer Night's Dream andKing Lear, among others.[87] In 2017, Li Wenrui wrote inChina Daily that 10 masterpieces of the traditional Peking opera repertoire areThe Drunken Concubine,Monkey King,Farewell My Concubine,A River All Red, Wen Ouhong'sUnicorn Trapping Purse ("the representative work of Peking Opera master Chen Yanqiu"),White Snake Legend,The Ruse of the Empty City (fromRomance of the Three Kingdoms),Du Mingxin'sFemale Generals of the Yang Family,Wild Boar Forest, andThe Phoenix Returns Home.[88]
Peking opera and its stylistic devices have appeared in many Chinese films. It often was used to signify a unique "Chineseness" in contrast to sense of culture being presented in Japanese films.Fei Mu, a director of the pre-Communist era, used Peking opera in a number of plays, sometimes within Westernized, realistic plots.King Hu, a later Chinese film director, used many of the formal norms of Peking opera in his films, such as the parallelism between music, voice, and gesture.[89] In the 1993 filmFarewell My Concubine, byChen Kaige, Peking opera serves as the object of pursuit for the protagonists and a backdrop for their romance. However, the film's portrayal of Peking opera has been criticized as one-dimensional.[90]
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