Bougainville has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years. During the colonial period, the region was occupied and administered by the Germans, Australians, Japanese, and Americans for various periods. The name of the region originates from French admiralLouis Antoine de Bougainville,[8] who reached it in 1768.
Bougainvillean separatism dates to the 1960s, and theRepublic of the North Solomons was declared shortly before the independence of Papua New Guinea in 1975; it was subsumed into Papua New Guinea the following year. Conflict over thePanguna mine became the primary trigger for theBougainville Civil War (1988–1998), which resulted in the deaths of up to 20,000 people. A peace agreement resulted in the creation of theAutonomous Bougainville Government.
In late 2019, a non-bindingindependence referendum was held with 98% voting for independence rather than continued autonomy within Papua New Guinea. As a result, the regional authorities intend to become independent between 2025 and 2027, pending ratification by the Papua New Guinean government. If ratified, the capital may relocate from Buka back to the previous location ofArawa.[9][10][11] In March 2025, the Bougainville Independence Leaders Consultation Forum recommended 1 September 2027 as the date of independence.[12]
Bougainville has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years, according to evidence obtained fromKilu Cave on Buka Island.[13] Until about 10,000 years ago, during theLast Glacial Maximum, there was a single island referred to as "Greater Bougainville" that spanned from the northern tip of Buka Island to theNggela Islands north ofGuadalcanal.[14]
The first inhabitants of Bougainville wereAustralo-Melanesians who presumably arrived from theBismarck Archipelago.[15] Around 3000 years ago,Austronesian peoples brought theLapita culture to the islands,[16] introducing pottery, agriculture, and domesticated animals such as pigs, dogs, and chickens.[17] Both Austronesian andnon-Austronesian languages are spoken on the islands to this day, however, there has been significant mixing between the populations to the point that cultural and genetic differences are no longer correlated with language.[18]
TheGerman Solomon Islands were administered throughGerman New Guinea, although it took almost two decades for an administrative presence to be established. The German administrative station atKieta, established in 1905, was preceded by aMarist mission, which succeeded in converting a majority of the islanders to Catholicism.[22] The first fully commercial plantation was established in 1908, but German annexation had little economic impact.[23]
In 1942, Bougainvillewas invaded by the Japanese in order to provide a support base for the operations elsewhere in the South-West Pacific. TheAllied counter-invasion resulted in heavy casualties, beginning in 1943, with full control of the islands not re-established until 1945. After the war the Australian government incorporated Bougainville and the rest of the mandate into theTerritory of Papua and New Guinea, the immediate predecessor of present-day Papua New Guinea.[citation needed]
Papua New Guinea gained its independence from Australia in 1975. As Bougainville is rich incopper andgold, a large mine had been established atPanguna in the early 1970s byBougainville Copper Limited, a subsidiary ofRio Tinto. Disputes by regional residents with the company over adverse environmental impacts, failure to share financial benefits, and negative social changes brought by the mine resulted in a local revival for asecessionist movement that had been dormant. Activists proclaimed the independence of Bougainville (Republic of North Solomons) in 1975 and in 1990, but both times central government forces suppressed the democratic independence movement.[citation needed]
In 1988, theBougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) increased their activity significantly. Prime Minister SirRabbie Namaliu ordered thePapua New Guinea Defence Force (PNGDF) to put down the rebellion, and the conflict escalated intoa civil war. The PNGDF retreated from permanent positions on Bougainville in 1990 but continued military action. The conflict involved pro-independence and loyalist Bougainvillean groups as well as the PNGDF. The war claimed an estimated15000 to20000 lives.[26][27]
The Bougainville conflict ended in 1997 after negotiations brokered byNew Zealand. In 2000, A peace agreement was completed and, together withdisarmament, provided for the establishment of anAutonomous Bougainville Government. The parties agreed to have a referendum in the future on whether the island should become politically independent.[28]
On 25 July 2005, rebel leaderFrancis Ona died after a short illness. A former surveyor withBougainville Copper, Ona was a key figure in the secessionist conflict and had refused to formally join the island's peace process.[citation needed]
In 2015, Australia announced it would establish a diplomatic post in Bougainville for the first time.[29] In 2016, it cancelled those plans acknowledging that it had not obtained thePNG government's approval.[30]
In 2019, a non-bindingindependence referendum was held with 98.3% voting for independence rather than continued autonomy within Papua New Guinea. As a result, the regional authorities intend to become independent between 2025 and 2027. A draft constitution for a "Republic of Bougainville" was published by the Autonomous Bougainville Government in May 2024. In March 2025, the Bougainville Independence Leaders Consultation Forum recommended 1 September 2027 as the date of independence. Prime MinisterJames Marape cautioned that Bougainville's economy is not sustainable enough for independence.[9]
The Bougainville region occupies the north of the Solomon archipelago with Bougainville Island, which is the largest island of this group. The border between Papua New Guinea and the nation ofSolomon Islands lies just south in the middle of a 9 km (5.6 mi) strait that separates it from theShortland Islands.
The island of Buka is north of Bougainville, separated by anarrow strait. The region includes other more or less remote islands and atolls:
Elections for the first autonomous government were held in May and June 2005;Joseph Kabui, an independence leader, was elected president. He died in office on 6 June 2008. After interim elections to fill the remainder of his term, John Momis was elected as president in 2010 for a five-year term. He supports autonomy within a relationship with the national government of Papua New Guinea.[citation needed]
The Constitution of Bougainville specifies that the Autonomous Bougainville Government shall consist of three branches:[6]
Judicial: the Bougainville Courts including a Supreme Court and High Court.
The capital city isBuka, which became the centre of government afterArawa was damaged during theBougainville Civil War. The status of Buka is considered temporary, and the government is deciding on the location of a permanent capital.[31]
PresidentJohn Momis confirmed that Bougainville would hold a non-bindingindependence referendum in 2019.[32] The governments of both Bougainville and Papua New Guinea held a two-week referendum period which began on 23 November 2019 and closed on 7 December 2019, which is the final step in the Bougainville Peace Agreement.[33] The referendum question was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea, or full independence. Over 98% of the valid ballots were cast for independence.[34][35]
Ishmael Toroama, a former rebel leader, was elected president of Bougainville on 23 September 2020.[36]
Negotiations between Papua New Guinea and Bougainville began on 17 May 2021.[37] While Toroama stated a desire to see Bougainville become independent by June 2025, Papua New Guinea Prime MinisterJames Marape cautioned against setting a specific timetable.[38][39] On 7 July 2021, it was announced that Bougainville will become independent by the end of 2027 pending approval of the PNG parliament. In March 2025, the Bougainville Independence Leaders Consultation Forum recommended 1 September 2027 as the date of independence.[9][40][10][11]
District map of the Autonomous Region of BougainvilleMap of the vicinity ofBougainville Island
The region is divided into three districts, which are further divided into Local Level Government (LLGs) areas. Forcensus purposes, the LLGAs are subdivided into wards, and those into census units.[41]
The great majority of Bougainville residents are Christian, with an estimated 70% being Roman Catholic and a substantial minority being of the ProtestantUnited Church of Papua New Guinea since 1968. TheCatholic Church has its own diocese in the region (Diocese of Bougainville orDioecesis Buganvillensis).[42] Thecathedral and main church is dedicated toOur Lady of the Assumption, and can be found onBuka Island. It was formerly the Church of St. Michael the Archangel in the former mission of Tubiana. There are a total of 33 Catholic parishes and one mission in the region.[43]
Bougainville's constitution, written inEnglish, does not specify anofficial language, but calls for constitutional literature to be translated into Tok Pisin and as many local languages as possible, while also encouraging the "development, preservation, and enrichment of all Bougainville languages".[6]
The most widely spoken Austronesian language isHalia and its dialects, spoken in the island ofBuka and the Selau peninsula of Northern Bougainville. Other Austronesian languages includeNehan,Petats,Solos,Saposa (Taiof),Hahon andTinputz, all spoken in the northern quarter of Bougainville, Buka and surrounding islands. These languages are closely related.Bannoni andTorau are Austronesian languages not closely related to the former, which are spoken in the coastal areas of central and south Bougainville. On the nearbyTakuu Atoll aPolynesian language is spoken,Takuu.[44]
Official statistics about Bougainville's economy are not available. The PNG National Research Institute estimates itsGDP per capita at $1100 as of 2019.[update][45]
A small percentage of the region's economy is frommining. The majority of economic growth comes fromagriculture andaquaculture. The region's biodiversity, which is one of the most important inOceania, is heavily threatened bymining activities. Mining activities have caused civil unrest in the region many[quantify] times.[when?] In January 2018, a moratorium on one mine was imposed by the Papua New Guinea government, in a bid to calm civil unrest against mining in the region.[46]
Bougainville had one of the world's largest open-pit copper mines, the Pangunamine, from 1972 to 1989, which for many years generated a large part of Papua New Guinea'sgross national product. The mine was operated by the Australian company Bougainville Copper (BLC), a subsidiary of the British-Australian mining company Rio Tinto/CRA, which had majority control of the company. The state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) holds a 19.1% stake in Bougainville Copper.[citation needed]
As a result of thecivil war and the rebel-forced closure of the mine, Papua New Guinea's government revenues fell by 20%. Some hope for the eventual reopening of the Panguna mine. Negotiations to reopen the Panguna mine began in early March 2006 with talks between former PNG Mines Minister Sam Akoitai and the Rio Tinto corporation in London. Some representatives of landowners in the Panguna area have repeatedly agreed to resume mining operations, albeit in conjunction with demands for large compensation payments from the mine operator BCL.[citation needed]
Yields from the two mainexports,cocoa andcopra, returned to pre-civil war levels in 2007. Largely operated by Europeans, Asians, churches and corporations, large-scale commercial plantations, which were responsible for a significant share of production before the civil war, are now used by smaller local operators. Further processing is done by small cocoa dryers promoted by AusAid.[citation needed]
Bougainville Region is the most productive in all of PNG for cocoa.[47] Omuruet al., 2001 find households farming cacao (Theobroma cacao) average an income of US$215/year.[47] TheCocoa Pod Borer (Conopomorpha cramerella) was considered a large risk forinvasion here due to its invasion of nearby areas of Southeast Asia[48] includingEast New Britain.[49] There was great interest inmodelling andphytosanitation practices to forestall its introduction.[48] Unfortunately CPB did arrive here and in 2011 theWorld Bank'sProductive Partnerships in Agriculture Project was created to help farmers control the insect.[49] From the 2009 production level, bean tonnage fell by over 41% by 2014 (although this also includes trees aging out).[50] TheTinputz area – includingNamatoa – had been the highest-producing part of the region and has seen many farms be abandoned and return to jungle.[50] PPAP hopes to revive the industry around Namatoa.[50]Cryptolaemussinestria is a mealybug of cacao trees here, observed at aBuka agricultural station.[51]
A law passed by the provincial assembly — theBougainville Flag, Emblem and Anthem (Protection) Act 2018 — affirmed the existing official status of theflag of Bougainville andemblem of Bougainville. Both the flag and emblem feature stylised depictions of theupe, a traditional headdress worn by men in parts of Bougainville to symbolise their transition to adulthood. The law also established "My Bougainville" as the region's anthem.[53][54]
^Spriggs, Matthew (2005). "Bougainville's early history: an archaeological perspective". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 1.ISBN978-1-74076-138-3.
^Sack, Peter (2005). "German Colonial Rule in the Northern Solomons". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 77.ISBN978-1-74076-138-3.
^Griffin, James (2005). "Origins of Bougainville's Boundaries". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 74.ISBN978-1-74076-138-3.
^Elder, Peter (2005). "Between theWaitman's Wars: 1914–42". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 146.ISBN978-1-74076-138-3.
^abcdGray, B. (20 August 1968). "Forest tree and timber insect pests in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea".Pacific Insects.10 (2):301–323.S2CID86282067.
Gillespie, Waratah Rosemarie (2009).Running with Rebels: Behind the Lies in Bougainville's hidden war. Australia: Ginibi Productions.ISBN978-0-646-51047-7.
Oliver, Douglas (1973).Bougainville: A Personal History. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.
Oliver, Douglas (1991).Black Islanders: A Personal Perspective of Bougainville, 1937–1991. Melbourne: Hyland House. Repeats text from previous 1973 reference and updates with summaries of Papua New Guinea press reports on the Bougainville Crisis.
.svg)
