Thearmatoles (Greek:αρματολοί,romanized: armatoloi;Albanian:armatolë;Aromanian:armatoli;Bosnian:armatoli), orarmatole in singular, were irregular soldiers, ormilitia, commissioned by theOttomans to enforce the sultan's authority within an administrative district called anarmatoliki (αρματολίκι in singular,αρματολίκια,armatolikia in plural).[3] InGreek regions of the Ottoman Empire, they were composed ofGreeks who were either formerklephts or village stalwarts who had taken up arms against the klephts in the defense of their district.[3][4][5]
The Greek armatoles had a semi-independent status all over theGreek peninsula,[6] and armatolikia were created in areas that had high levels of brigandage (i.e.klephts), or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain, such as theAgrafa mountains ofThessaly, where the first armatoliki was established in the 15th century. Over time, the roles of the armatoles and klephtes became blurred, with both reversing their roles and allegiances as the situation demanded, all the while maintaining the delicate status-quo with the Ottoman authorities. They were armed men who were enforcing the law according to their desires with the force of their guns, armata, since the authority of the Ottoman Empire was very limited in the areas that they were acting, as the Ottoman Empire where the armatoles were present was afailed state.[7]Albanian armatoles were employed by Ottoman authorities, and in particular in the latter half of the 18th century, during the administration of the Ottoman Albanian rulerAli Pasha of the increasingly independentPashalik of Yanina he replaced Greek armatoles, making the regions armatoles almost exclusively Albanian. The thus deposed Greek armatoles became klephts and their subsequent anti-armatoloi activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule.[5]
During theGreek War of Independence, the Greek armatoles, along with the klephts, formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration.Yannis Makriyannis referred to them and klephts as the "yeast of liberty" (μαγιά της λευτεριάς).[8] Despite being ineffective, they were the only viable military force for the provisional governments of the 1821-1827 period. During that time period, three attempts were made at creating a regular army, and one of the reasons for their failure was the resistance of the klepht and armatoles leaders.[9] Their motive to fight the Ottomans was more personal gain than national aspirations;[9][10] they were not aware of national projects, made alliances with the Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims.[11][12]
There were also someBosnian armatoles, who were drawn from the local Muslim populations,[5][13][14] as well as someAromanian armatoles, many of whom cooperated with pro-Bulgariankomitadjis.[15][16][17] There also wereMegleno-Romanian armatoles.[18]
The word "armatole" first appeared in the 15th century duringVenetian times. It is derived from a medieval loan from Latinarma ('weapon'), probably viaGreek αρματολόγος ('someone who deals with arms', 'an armed person') → αρματολόος → αρματολός. According to an older hypothesis, the development of the word may also have been influenced by a conflation with the similar-sounding αμαρτωλός ("sinner"; cf.hamartia), which may have been associated with the topic of armed bands through phrases such as "αμαρτωλοί/αρματολοί και κλέφτες" (meaning "sinners and thieves", but also "armatoles andklephts"). Owing to the parallelism with "αμαρτωλός", the word was also sometimes spelled as "αρματωλός", with the letter omega.[19]
The military/police organization of the armatoles, known asarmatolismos, has its origins in theByzantine period of Greek history.[3] Armatolismos was a type offeudalism where police and military functions were provided in exchange for titles of land.[3] As an institution, the armatoles first appear inAgrafa,Thessaly during the reign ofSultan Murad II (r. 1421–1451). From there, they spread to other parts of Greece except thePeloponnese.[20]
Administrative districts known asarmatolikia were created in areas of Greece that had high levels of brigandage (i.e.klephts), or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain. An armatoliki was commanded by akapetanios often a formerklepht captain who had been hired by the governingOttomanpasha to combat, or at least contain, brigand groups operating in the region. In most cases, the captain would have gained a level of notoriety as a klepht to force the Ottomans to give him amnesty and the privileges that came with an armatoliki. Therefore, it was not surprising that armatole units were organised in very much the same way as theklephts, with a captain assisted by alieutenant called aprotopalikaro, who was usually a kinsman, and the remaining force made up of armatoles. Many captains ran their armatolikia like their personal fiefdoms, exacting a heavy toll of extortion and violence on the local peasantry.
As mentioned earlier, the armatoles were organized based on afeudal system under which they maintained their military/police duties in exchange for titles of land.[3] When the Ottomans conquered Greece in the 15th century, they established treaties with the armatoles in order for them to maintain their military/police functions.[3] The Ottomans would have units of armatoles or kapetanioi (καπετάνιοι, captains) function as peace-keepers in territories near difficult terrain (i.e. mountain passes) or in areas where resistance to foreign rule entailed acts of theft by the klephts. Most armatoles were former klephts who had received amnesty.[9] They were chosen with agreement between the local pasha and Muslim and Christian community representatives (local primates). They were paid by the local people, and made use of force to collect taxes. This caused conflicts between the armatoles and community representatives. There were also instances of collaboration between them to exterminate rival factions.[22]
The armatoles were mostly concentrated inMacedonia,Thessaly,Epirus,Acarnania, andAetolia (specificallyAgrafa). In the Peloponnese, armatolismos did not develop in the same manner as it did in Roumeli and Epirus. In the Peloponnese, thekapoi (κάποι) and themeintanides (μεϊντάνηδες) were similar to the armatoles. If in certain regions, the institution of armatolismos was not implemented, the territories were divided intoarmatolikia (αρματολίκια) orprotakta (προτάκτα). These territories extended from theAxios River (Αξιός) to theAmbracian Gulf (Αμβρακικός) and up to theCorinthian Gulf (Κορινθιακός). The kapetanioi would often have authority over these territories via inheritance/succession. A single kapetanio was at first forced to submit his authority to the pasha who controlled the periphery. Later, all kapetanioi were forced to submit to Dervedji pasha (Δερβετζή πασά).
During the 18th century, there were around seventeen armatolikia. Ten of them were located in Thessaly and the eastern regions ofCentral Greece, four of them in Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia, and three in Macedonia. Every kapetanio had his rank-and-file soldiers known aspalikaria (παλικάρια, from ancient Greekpallix) and section leaders among these palikaria were known asprotopalikara (πρωτοπαλίκαρα).[23] The palikaria would train with their weapons on a daily basis.
The main weapon the palikaria utilized was thekariofili (καριοφίλι).[24] Marksmanship was the proverbial hallmark that defined the palikaria. They were also highly mobile and capable at conductingambushes. The palikaria were resilient toward thirst, hunger and even the painful difficulties in their encounters with the klephts.
The termklephtopolemos (κλεφτοπόλεμος) was used to name the strategies/tactics that both the klephts and armatoles utilized. These tactics are used today for unconventional military campaigns by smallguerrilla groups. The armatoles would conduct campaigns during nighttime. This strategy was known as "going out to pagana" (έβγαιναν στην παγάνα). The armatoles would usually do this when the klephts were coming out of their dens. The armatoles would defend themselves in improvised forts (calledmeterizia;μετερίζια) against the guerrilla tactics utilized by the klephts (specifically known asklephtouria; κλεφτουριά). A general offensive campaign by the armatoles was known asgiourousi (γιουρούσι). During one of these campaigns, the armatoles would make effective use of swords and war cries.
During the 1810-1820 decade the Greek armatoles largely depended on the support they enjoyed from the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha of the increasingly independentPashalik of Yanina. Because of that they had little influence from the Greek nationalist organizationFiliki Eteria and had reservations about participating at the Greek War of Independence. This changed after Ali Pasha died and their future became less certain.[22] Most of the Armatoles had learned their military skills among the Christian AlbanianSouliotes and other Albanian groups who had a renowned tradition in irregular warfare.[25] The klephts and armatoles played a key role during the Greek War of Independence. Despite being ineffective, they were the only viable military force for the provisional governments of the 1821-1827 period. During that time period, three attempts were made at creating a regular army, and one of the reasons for their failure was the resistance of the klepht and armatoles leaders.[9] Among armatoles leaders wereOdysseas Androutsos,Georgios Karaiskakis,Athanasios Diakos,Markos Botsaris andGiannis Stathas.[26]
Contrary to conventional Greek history, many of the klephts and armatoles participated at theGreek War of Independence according to their own militaristic patron-client terms. They saw the war as an economic and political opportunity to expand their areas of operation.[9][10] Balkan bandits such as the klephts and armatoles - glorified in nationalist historiography as national heroes - were actually driven by economic interests, were not aware of national projects, made alliances with the Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims.[11][12]
Albanian armatoles were employed by the Ottoman authorities.[13][14][27] During theAustro-Turkish War (1716–1718), an Albanian armatole-like private militia caused trouble in Kavala, resulting in its abolition byAhmed III in 1721; however, it continued to exist illegally for another 100 years.[28] Christian AlbanianSouliots and other Albanian warrior groups with a renowned tradition in irregular warfare imbued most of armatoles with their military art.[25]
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Albanian armatoles were employed by Ottoman authorities, in particular in the latter half of the 18th century. During the administration of the Ottoman Albanian rulerAli Pasha of the increasingly independentPashalik of Yanina the Greek armatoles where replaced by Albanians, making the region's armatoles almost exclusively Albanian. The deposed Greek armatoles became klephts and their subsequent activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule.[5]
Ali Pasha appointed under his direct authority a number of armatoloi and klephts who were loyal to him, and who were employed as his own military troops in Yanina and in territories under his administration.[29] The defeat of Ali Pasha by the Ottoman Empire in 1820 and the subsequent outbreak of the Greek revolution generated a vacuum of power in the region, especially until 1823. Initially the armatoloi who formerly fought for Ali Pasha tried to preserve their independence and military leadership, but when their areas of control came under the authority of the Greek revolutionary leadership, they tried to keep their power in this new context.[30]
Ali Pasha positioned theArvaniteOdysseas Androutsos asarmatolos of Livadeia in eastern central Greece in 1816. In 1818 Androutsos became a member of theFiliki Eteria withAthanasios Diakos, an organisation that aimed at the independence of Greece, and with the defeat of Ali Pasha Androutsos joined the Greek revolutionary army.[31] In 1825 he permanentrly changed allegiances and joined the army of the Ottoman Albanian rulerOmer Vrioni, Pasha of Yanina, and thereafter he was captured and executed by the Greek revolutionaries.[32]
There also were ethnicAromanian armatole fighters.[15][16][17] Many of these often engaged in cooperation with pro-Bulgariankomitadjis such as theSecret Macedo-Adrianopolitan Revolutionary Organization (TMORO).[15]
In Bosnia, armatoles were largely drawn from the local Muslim populations.[5] According to documents, in 1485-1490 these Bosnian armatoles were tasked with guarding the Turkish forts on the shores ofDalmatia which sustained attacks from theVenetians.[33]
Traian Cucuda, aMegleno-Romanian,[18] was a relevant armatolevoivode at his time.[15]
– Nos. 744 and 745, watercolours, by the German artist Carl Haag (born 1820 ), representing a Greek peasant girl and an Armatole ( regular soldier ) .
The 1861 depiction of an Arvanite warrior by Carl Haag at the Benaki Museum in Athens is but one of the more well-known such portrayals.
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)Indeed, the list of examples of Aromanians in Greek history is quite impressive: [...] Georgakis Olympios (1772-1821, member of "Filiki Etaireia", fought in the revolution of 1821)
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