TheAlbanian language is composed of manydialects, divided into two major groups:Gheg andTosk.[1] TheShkumbin river is roughly the geographical dividing line, with Gheg spoken north of the Shkumbin and Tosk south of it.[2]
The characteristics of the Albanian dialects Tosk and Gheg,[3] in the treatment of the native and loanwords from other languages, have led to the conclusion that the dialectal split preceded theSlavic migration to the Balkans.[4][5]
According to the view of Demiraj, during the process of dialect split Albanian populations were roughly in their present location,[6] whileEric Hamp notes that "it must be relatively old, that is, dating back into the post-Roman first millennium. As a guess, it seems possible that this isogloss reflects a spread of the speech area, after the settlement of the Albanians in roughly their present location, so that the speech area straddled theJireček Line".[7]
Gheg is divided into four sub-dialects: Northwest Gheg, Northeast Gheg, Central Gheg, and Southern Gheg. Northwest Gheg is spoken throughoutMontenegro, northwesternKosovo (west ofPejë),Lezhë, northwesternMirditë, southwestern Tropojë, westernGusinje, westernPukë, andShkodër. Northeast Gheg is spoken throughout most of Kosovo,Preshevë, Has, northeastern Mirditë, eastern parts of villages ofShalë commune of Shkodër, eastern parts of villages of other communes of Shkodër bordered with Tropojë, eastern Pukë, easternGjakovë, eastern Gusinje,Kukës,Tropojë, and northern Tetovë. Central Gheg is spoken inDebar,Gostivar,Krujë, northern Durrës, northern Tirana,Peshkopi, southern Lezhë, southern Mirditë,Mat,Bulqizë, easternStrugë,Kumanovo, and southernTetovë. Southern Gheg is spoken inDurrës, northernElbasan, northern Pogradec, Librazhd, northernPeqin, southern Bulqizë,Kavajë,Rrogozhinë, northwestStrugë, andTirana. One fairly divergent dialect is theUpper Reka dialect, which is however classified as Central Gheg. There is also a diaspora dialect inCroatia, theArbanasi dialect.
Nasal vowels: Gheg retains the nasal vowels of late Proto-Albanian and the late Proto-Albanian*â plus a nasal remainsâ (e.g.nândë "nine"). Although, the quality of the vowel varies by dialect,[ɑ̃],[ɒ̃],[ɔ̃], etc. Some Northeast and Northwest Gheg dialects preserve the nasal in words such as[pɛ̃s] "five" while other Gheg dialects do not,[pɛs] "five".
Monophthongization: Occurs in some dialects of Shkodër in a few words, e.g.[vø̞ː]voe "egg" and[hɛ̞ː]hae "food".
Phonological vowel length: There is often phonological vowel length in most Gheg dialects. Some dialects of Shkodër have a three length distinction in vowels, for example, short:[pɛ̃nˠ] "yoke", long:[pɛ̃ːnˠ] "pen", and extra-long:[pɛ̃ːːnˠ] "yokes".
a-vowel: In some dialects occurring in some certain wordsa may become a diphthong (e.g.[bəaɫ] forballë "forehead") or become[æ] (e.g.[læɾɡ] forlarg "far").
ë-vowel: Final -ë drops and often lengthens the preceding vowel.
i-vowel: Thei vowel in the worddhi (goat) can be realized as various vowels in the Central Gheg dialects:[ðəi] (Krujë),[ðei] (Mountainous Krujë),[ðɛi] or[ðei] (Mat), as well as[ðai] or[ðɔi] in other regions.
o-vowel: Theo derounds to[ʌ] in some words in some dialects (e.g.[sʌt] forsot "today" in Krujë and among some Muslim speakers in Shkodër).
u-vowel: Theu vowel in different dialects occurring some words may vary, for examplerrush "grape" may be[ruʃ],[rauʃ],[rɔuʃ],[rɔʃ], or[roʃ].
y-vowel: They vowel can remain asy (e.g.dy "two" in much of the Gheg speaking areas), derounded toi (e.g.[di] "two" in Debar), or becomes more open and less rounded to[ʏ̜] (e.g.[dʏ̜] "two" in Mat and Mountainous Krujë). In other words in Central Gheg, they vowel can become[ø] as in[sø] forsy "eye" (Mat and Krujë).
bj/pj: These may yieldbgj orpq in some dialects (e.g.pqeshkë forpjeshkë "peach" in Negotin).
bl/pl/fl: These may become bj/pj/fj or even bgj/pq in some dialects (e.g.pjak forplak "old" in Toplica orpqak forplak "old" in Negotin).
dh and ll: These sounds may interchange in some words in some dialects, especially in the dialects ofKavajë,Tirana, andDurrës where ll completely replaces dh.
h: This may drop in any position in some dialects.
mb/nd: Consonant clusters such asnd vary greatly by sub-dialect:nder "honor" can realized as[ndɛɾ],[nd͉ɛɾ],[ⁿdɛɾ],[dɛɾ],[nɛɾ], or[nˠɛɾ].
q/gj: In the Gheg dialects,q andgj may remain palatal stops[c] and[ɟ], change to postalveolar affricates[t͡ʃ] and[d͡ʒ] (and thus merging with Albanianç andxh), change to alveolo-palatal affricates[t͡ɕ] and[d͡ʑ], or even change to alveolo-palatal fricatives[ɕ] and[ʑ].
tj/dj: These may become palatal stops[c] and[ɟ] in some dialects.
The Northwestern Gheg subdialect encompasses three main Albanian ethnographic regions:Malësia e Madhe, Shkodër and Lezhë. Within the Northwestern Gheg, the area of Malësia e Madhe shows different phonological, syntactic, and lexical patterns than the areas of Shkodër and Lezhë. For this reason,Malsia e Madhe Albanian can be considered a distinct variety of Northwestern Gheg. The different features of this variety can be traced to the historical and geographic isolation of the mountainous region of Malësia e Madhe (Albanian for 'Great Highlands').[8]
The early isolated Malsia Albanian has preserved archaic features ofProto-Albanian andProto-Indo-European in comparison to other Gheg varieties and to Tosk, such as the word-initial voiceless and voiced stops.[9] Whereas Tosk Albanian has homorganic nasal-stop clusters, having produced a shift from the proto form that featured a word-initial stop to a nasal-stop cluster, which was achieved by placing a prefixen- (< PAlb preposition*en 'in'). Gheg Albanian is in a transitional position,[10] featuring nasals that resulted from reduced nasal-stop clusters.[11]
Malsia word-initial stop vs. the innovation of nasal-stop clusters in other dialects
PIE
Malsia
Tosk
Gheg
*peh₂- 'protect'
pɔ:j 'to hold, keep'
mbaj 'hold, carry'
mɔ:j
*bʰer- 'bear, carry'
bɔ:j 'carry'
mbaj 'hold, carry'
mɔ:j
*ten 'stretch, tighten'
tæ̃:n 'push, press'
ndej 'hold, carry'
*deh₂- 'share, divide'
dɔ: 'split, cut, divide'
ndaj
dɔ:
*gʰodʰ-, (o-grade of*gʰedʰ-)
gæ: 'time, chance, opportunity'
ŋge
Examples of the formation of nasal-stop clusters by placing the prefixen- with unstressed word-initial vowel are: Toskmbuʃa 'to fill', from PAlb*en-busa (vs. Malsiabuʃa); Toskŋga 'where, from where', from PAlb*en-ka (vs. Malsiaka); Toskŋgula 'to thrust, put on point', from PAlb*en-kula (vs. Malsiaku:ʎ); Toskndej 'to stretch', from PAlb*en-tenja (vs. Malsiatæ̃:n).[12]
The PAlb preposition*en 'in' has been preserved solely in the Malsia Albanian dialect, whereas in the other Gheg varieties and in Tosk it has been reanalyzed as a prefix attached to other lexical terms, no longer existing as a preposition.[12]
The transitional dialects are spoken in southern Elbasan so-calledGreater Elbasan (Cërrik, Dumre, Dushk, Papër, Polis, Qafe, Shpat, Sulovë, Thanë), southern Peqin, northwestern Gramsh, northern Kuçovë, northern Berat, extreme southwestern Kavajë, northern and central Lushnjë and southern Librazhd (Bërzeshtë, Rrajcë), and Flazian-Falazdim-whish spoken in north of Albania.
Proto-Albanian *ō becomesvo in the western sub-dialects orva in the central and eastern sub-dialects.
Nasal vowels: In some sub-dialects of Transitional, some nasal vowels denasalize (e.g. rora "sand" in Sulovë) while in other words the nasals are retained:sŷ "eye" (Dumre, Shpat, Sulovë).
ô-vowel: Some sub-dialects haveô forâ in some words (e.g.ôma "taste" in Sulovë).
Mb/Nd: Clusters such asmb becomem in some dialects (e.g.kôma for standardkëmba "leg").
Tosk is divided into five sub-dialects: Northern Tosk, Labërisht, Çam, Arvanitika, and Arbëresh. Northern Tosk is spoken in Berat, Fier, Skrapar, southern Kuçovë, southern Lushnjë, extreme southeastern Elbasan, most of Gramsh, Kolonjë, northern Mallakastër, northern Vlorë, Korçë, Ohër, Devoll, Përmet, east of the Vjosë river of Tepelenë, southern Struga (western shore of Lake Ohër), Pogradec, Prespa and northern Vlorë.Lab (orLabërisht) is spoken in southern Vlorë, Dukat, Himarë, southern Mallakastër, Delvinë, southernÇepan ofSkrapar, eastern and southern Kolonjë, eastern and southern Leskovik, western and southern Përmet, west of the Vjosë river of Tepelenë, Gjirokastër and Sarandë.Çam is spoken in southern Sarandë (Konispol, Ksamil[citation needed], Markat, Xarrë) and in parts of northern Greece. Tosk dialects are spoken by most members of the large Albanian immigrant communities ofEgypt, Turkey, andUkraine. Çamërisht is spoken in North-western Greece, whileArvanitika is spoken by theArvanites in southern Greece, mainlyPeloponnese,Attica,Euboea, and the adjacent islands.Arbëresh is spoken by theArbëreshë, descendants of 15th and 16th century migrants who settled in southeastern Italy, in small communities in the regions ofSicily,Calabria,Basilicata,Campania,Molise,Abruzzi, andApulia.
Nasal vowels: There is a lack of nasal vowels in Tosk (e.g.sy "eye") and Late Proto-Albanian*â plus a nasal becomesë (e.g.nëntë "nine"). However, nasal vowels have been reported in the Lab dialects of Himarë and Kurvelesh[13] and separately in the Lab dialect ofBorsh.[14]
e-vowel: Thee becomesë in some dialects in some wordsqën forqen "dog" in Vjosë.
ë-vowel: Theë may have several pronunciations depending on dialect:mëz "foal" is[mʌz] in Vuno) whileë is more backed in Labërisht. Final -ë drops in many Tosk dialects and lengthens the preceding vowel.
y-vowel: They vowel often derounds toi in the southern dialects Labërisht, Çam, Arvanitika and Arbëresh (e.g.dy "two" becomesdi).
Dh and Ll: These sounds may interchange in some words in some dialects.
H: This may drop in any position in some dialects.
Gl/Kl: Some dialects such as Çam, Arberësh, and Arvanitika retain archaickl andgl in place ofq andgj, to which they have shifted in other places (e.g.gjuhë "tongue" isgluhë in Çam,gluhë in Arberësh, andgljuhë in Arvanitika; "klumësh" for "qumësht" "milk" in Arbëresh).
^Brown and Ogilvie (2008), p. 23.The river Shkumbin in central Albania historically forms the boundary between those two dialects, with the population on the north speaking varieties of Geg and the population on the south varieties of Tosk.
^Brown & Ogilvie 2008, p. 23: "In Tosk /a/ before a nasal has become a central vowel (shwa), and intervocalic /n/ has become /r/. These two sound changes have affected only the pre-Slav stratum of the Albanian lexicon, that is the native words and loanwords from Greek and Latin"
^Fortson 2010, p. 392: "The dialectal split into Gheg and Tosk happened sometime after the region become Christianized in the fourth century AD; Christian Latin loanwords show Tosk rhotacism, such as Tosk murgu "monk" (Geg mungu) from Lat. monachus."
^Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 9: "The Greek and Latin loans have undergone most of the far-reaching phonological changes which have so altered the shape of inherited words while Slavic and Turkish words do not show those changes. Thus Albanian must have acquired much of its present form by the time Slavs entered into Balkans in the fifth and sixth centuries AD"
^Demiraj, Shaban. Prejardhja e shqiptarëve në dritën e dëshmive të gjuhës shqipe.(Origin of Albanians through the testimonies of the Albanian language) Shkenca (Tirana) 1999
^Hamp 1963, p. 98:The isogloss is clear in all dialects I have studied, which embrace nearly all types possible. It must be relatively old, that is, dating back into the post-Roman first millennium. As a guess, it seems possible that this isogloss reflects a spread of the speech area, after the settlement of the Albanians in roughly their present location, so that the speech area straddled the Jireček Line.
^Paçarizi 2008, pp. 101–102: "Second difference is the existence of nasal vocals in Gheg which is not a characteristic of Tosk even sometimes the nasality is not really stressed. This nasal-oral feature, according to Desnickaja, forms one of the elements which differentiate the Albanian dialects whereas Gjinari cites Dilo Sheper who said that there are also some nasal vocals in some places of Eastern Albania such as in Kurvelesh and Himarë but the information at that time did not confirmed that".
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