| Alaska pollock | |
|---|---|
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_-_GRB.jpg) | |
| In theOarai Aquarium,Japan | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Gadiformes |
| Family: | Gadidae |
| Genus: | Gadus |
| Species: | G. chalcogrammus |
| Binomial name | |
| Gadus chalcogrammus Pallas, 1814 | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
TheAlaska pollock orwalleye pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus) is a marine fish species of thecod genusGadus and familyGadidae.
It is a semi-pelagicschooling fish widely distributed in theNorth Pacific, with largest concentrations found in the easternBering Sea.[3]
Alaska pollock was in 1956 put in its own genus,Theragra, and classified asTheragra chalcogramma, but research in 2008 has shown it is rather closely related to theAtlantic cod and should therefore be moved back toGadus, where it was originally placed.[4][5] In 2014, the U.S.Food and Drug Administration announced that the official scientific name for the fish was changed fromTheragra chalcogramma back to its original taxonGadus chalcogrammus, highlighting its close genetic relationship to the other species of the cod genusGadus.[6] Since 2014, registries of scientific names for fish species (e.g. the United Nations' ASFIS list and the World Registry of Marine Species (WoRMS) have largely adopted theGadus chalcogrammus name.[7][8]
The change of the official scientific name was followed by a discussion to change the common name as well, to highlight the fish as a member of the cod genus.[6][9] The common names "Alaska pollock" and "walleye pollock", both used as trade names internationally, are considered misleading by scientific and trade experts, as the names do not reflect the scientific classification.[10][11][12] While belonging to the same family as theAtlanticpollock, the Alaska pollock is not a member of the genusPollachius, but of the cod genusGadus. Nevertheless, alternative trade names highlighting its placement in the cod genus, such as "snow cod",[13][14][15] "bigeye cod",[14] or direct deductions from the scientific names such as "copperline cod" (gadus meaning 'cod',Latin:chalco- fromGreek:khalkós meaning 'copper', andGreek:grammí meaning 'line'[16]) or "lesser cod" (from thesynonymous taxonGadus minor) have yet to find widespread acceptance.[9] TheNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration even states that "[the common name] might never change, as common names are separate from scientific names".[9]
In addition, Norwegian pollock (Theragra finnmarchica), a rare fish of Norwegian waters, is likely the same species as the Alaska pollock.[4]
The speckled coloring of Alaska pollock makes it more difficult for predators to see them when they are near sandy ocean floors.[17] They are a relatively fast-growing and short-lived species, currently representing a major biological component of the Bering Sea ecosystem.[3] It has been found that catches of Alaska pollock go up three years after stormy summers. The storms stir up nutrients, and this results inphytoplankton being plentiful for longer, which in turn allows more pollock hatchlings to survive.[18]The Alaska pollock has well-developed drumming muscles[19] that the fish use to produce sounds during courtship, like many othergadids.[20][21]
The primary factor in determining theforaging behavior of the Alaskan pollock is age. Young pollocks can be divided into two sub-groups, fish withlengths below 60 mm (2+1⁄2 in) and fish greater than 60 mm. Both groups mainly feed oncopepods.[22] However, the latter group will also forage forkrill.[22] Therefore, food depletion has a larger effect on smaller pollock.[22]
The variation in size of each subgroup also affects seasonal foraging behavior. During the winter, when food is scarce, foraging can be costly due to the fact that longer hunting time increases the risk of meeting a predator. The larger young pollocks have no need to hunt during the winter because they have a higher capacity for energy storage, while smaller fish do not, and have to continue foraging, putting them at greater risk. To maximize their chances of survival, large pollock increase their calorie intake in autumn to gain weight, while smaller ones focus solely on growing in size.[23]
Alaskan pollock exhibitdiel vertical migration, following the seasonal movement of their food. Although pollocks exhibit vertical movement during the day, their average depth changes with the seasons. Originally, the change in depth was attributed to the amount of light or water temperature, but in fact, it follows the movement of food species.[24] In August, when food is abundantly available near the surface, pollocks will be found at shallower depths. In November, they are found deeper along with their planktonic food source.[24]
The Alaska pollock's main habitats are the coastal areas of the NorthernPacific, especially the waters offAlaska (Eastern Bering Sea,Gulf of Alaska,Aleutian Islands) as well as offRussia,Japan and Korea (Western Bering Sea andSea of Okhotsk). The largest concentrations of Alaska pollock are found in the eastern Bering Sea.[3]
Very small populations of fish genetically identical toGadus chalcogrammus are found in theBarents Sea waters of northern Norway and Russia.[25] This fish was initiallydescribed as its own species under the taxonTheragra finnmarchica by Norwegian zoologistEinar Koefoed in 1956.[26] The common name used for the fish was "Norway pollock". Genetic analyses have shown that the fish is genetically identical to the Alaska pollock. It is therefore considered to beconspecific with the Pacific species and is attributed toGadus chalcogrammus. The history of the species in the Barents Sea is unknown.[27]
The initial specification as an own species by Koefoed was based on two specimens landed inBerlevåg, northern Norway, in 1932 (hence theNorwegian name,Berlevågfisk). Based on morphological differences, Koefoed consideredTheragra finnmarchica a new species, related to but separate from the Alaska pollock.[26] Just seven specimens of the fish are known to have been caught between 1957 and early 2002 in the Arctic Ocean.[28] In 2003 and 2004, 31 new specimens were caught. All specimens were large (465–687 mm (18+1⁄4–27 in) in total length) and caught in the coastal waters betweenVesterålen in the west andVarangerfjord in the east. By 2006, 54 individuals had been recorded.[4] Sequencing ofmitochondrial DNA of two specimens ofTheragra finnmarchica and 10Theragra chalcogramma (today:Gadus chalcogrammus) revealed no significant genetic differences, leading Ursvik et al.[29] to suggest thatT. finnmarchica andT. chalcogramma are the same species. An analysis of a much larger sample size (44T. finnmarchica and 20T. chalcogramma) using both genetic and morphological methods led to similar conclusions.[4] While the putative species could not be separated genetically, they showed some consistent differences in morphology. Only one characteristic showed no overlap. Byrkjedal et al.[4] conclude thatT. finnmarchica should be considered ajunior synonym ofT. chalcogramma. These analyses also suggest thatT. finnmarchica is a near relative of theAtlantic cod, and that both Alaska and Norway pollock should be moved to genusGadus.[4]
Norway pollock (Theragra finnmarchica) was listed asNear Threatened in the 2010 Norwegian Red List for Species[30] based on criteria D1: "Very small or geographically very restricted population: Number of mature individuals". TheIUCN Red List currently lists Alaskan pollock as Near Threatened in Europe.[1]
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The Alaska pollock has been said to be "the largest remaining source of palatable fish in the world".[32] Around 3 million metric tons (3,000,000 long tons; 3,300,000 short tons) of Alaska pollock are caught each year in the North Pacific, fromAlaska to northernJapan. Alaska pollock is the world's second most important fish species, after thePeruvian anchoveta, in terms of total catch.[33]
Alaska pollock landings are the largest of any single fish species in the U.S, with the average annual Eastern Bering Sea catch between 1979 and 2022 being 1.26 million metric tons.[34] Alaska pollock catches from U.S. fisheries have been relatively consistent at approximately 1.3 million tons a year, on average 92 percent from the Bering Sea and 8 percent from the Gulf of Alaska.[35][36] Each year's quota is adjusted based onstock assessments conducted by the Alaska Fisheries Science Center to prevent overfishing.[37] For example quotas were reduced from 2008 to 2010 in the Bering Sea due to stock declines.[33][38]
Independent certification groups have hailed the fishery as an example of good management. For example, the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands fisheries were separately certified as "sustainable" by theMarine Stewardship Council (MSC) in 2005, and were certified in 2010 and 2016.[39] The fisheries received a combined re-certification in 2020.[40] TheMarine Conservation Society rates Alaska pollock harvested from the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Aleutian Islands as sustainable, but not those from the Western Bering Sea in Russian waters.[41]
In 2021, the MSC awarded the U.S. trade associationsAssociation of Genuine Alaska Pollock Producers (GAPP) andAt-Sea Processors Association with itsOcean Champion Award that recognizes organizations for meeting MSC's commitment to a healthier ocean and a more transparent supply chain. The MSC recognized Alaska pollock from U.S. fisheries as one of the "healthiest" and "most sustainable sources" of protein.[42][43]
Compared to othercod species andpollock, Alaska pollock has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.
High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollockfillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughoutEurope andNorth America as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and batteredfish sticks and portions.
Alaska pollock is commonly used in thefast food industry in products such asMcDonald'sFilet-O-Fish sandwich,[44][45]Burger King Big Fish Sandwich,Wendy's Crispy Panko Fish Sandwich,[46]Arby's King's Hawaiian Fish Deluxe,[47]Arby's Crispy Fish Sandwich,[48]Arby's Spicy Fish Sandwich,[49]Long John Silver's Baja Fish Taco,[50]Bojangles Bojangular,[51]Birds Eye's Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter,[52] 7-Eleven's Fish Bites,[53]White Castle's Panko Breaded Fish Sliders,[54] andCaptain D's Seafood Kitchen.[55] Some of these items are seasonal offerings duringLent, when seafood demand is higher.
Single-frozen Alaska pollock is considered to be the premier raw material forsurimi. The most common use of surimi in the United States is "imitation crabmeat", though it is often seen labeled in retailers and grocers as"surimi seafood" sticks, flakes, or chunks.[56][57] There are five main forms of surimi seafood: chunk, leg, flake, salad, and shred.[58]
Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient inKorea,Japan, andRussia. In Korea, the roe is calledmyeongnan (명란, literally 'Alaska pollock's roe'), and the salted roe is calledmyeongnan-jeot (명란젓, literally 'pollock roejeotgal'). The food was introduced to Japan afterWorld War II, and since has been calledmentai-ko (明太子) in Japanese. A milder, less spicy version is usually calledtarako (鱈子, literally 'cod's roe'), which is also the Japanese name for pollock roe itself. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as asandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.
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Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish" ofKorea.[59][60] The Korean name of the fish,myeongtae (명태;明太), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: it is calledmintay (минтай) inRussia and its roe is calledmentaiko (明太子) inJapan, although the Japanese name for the fish itself issuketōdara (介党鱈). In Korea,myeongtae is called thirty-odd additional names, includingsaengtae (생태, fresh),dongtae (동태, frozen),bugeo (북어, dried),hwangtae (황태, dried in winter with repeated freezing and thawing),nogari (노가리, dried young), andkodari (코다리, half-dried young).[60]
Koreans have been eating Alaska pollock since theJoseon era. One of the earliest mentions is fromSeungjeongwon ilgi (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."[61] Alaska pollocks were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000tonnes were caught from theSea of Japan.[62] It outnumbers the current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in South Korea, estimated at 260,000tonnes in 2016.[63] Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea rely heavily on import fromRussia, due to rises in sea water temperatures.[64] In 2019, South Korea imposed a total ban on pollock fishing "to help replenish depleted stocks" of the fish.[65]
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