Male (left) and female (center and right)Ae. aegypti E.A. Goeldi, 1905
Aedes aegypti is a 4-to-7-millimetre-long (5⁄32 to35⁄128 in), darkmosquito which can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of alyre on the upper surface of itsthorax. Females are larger than males. Microscopically females possess small palps tipped with silver or white scales, and their antennae have sparse short hairs, whereas those of males are feathery.Aedes aegypti can be confused withAedes albopictus without a magnifying glass: the latter have a white stripe on the top of theirscutum.[4]
Males live off fruit[5] and only the female bites for blood, which she needs to mature her eggs. To find a host, she is attracted to chemical compounds emitted by mammals, includingammonia,[6]carbon dioxide,[7]lactic acid, andoctenol.[8] Scientists at The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)Agricultural Research Service studied the specific chemical structure of octenol to better understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host and found the mosquito has a preference for "right-handed" (dextrorotatory) octenol molecules.[9] The preference for biting humans is dependent on expression of theodorant receptorAaegOr4.[10] The white eggs are laid separately into water and soon turn black.[5] The larvae initially feed on bacteria and tiny organic particles, growing over a period of weeks through four larvalinstars until reaching the pupa stage.[4][5][11]
The lifespan of an adultAe. aegypti is two to four weeks depending on conditions,[4] but the eggs can be viable for over a year in a dry state, which allows the mosquito to re-emerge after a cold winter or dry spell.[5]
Ae. aegypti mosquito distribution in the United States, 2016
Aedes aegypti originated in Africa and was spread to the New World through theslave trade,[14] but is now found intropical, subtropical and temperate regions[15] throughout the world.[16]Ae. aegypti's distribution has increased in the past two to three decades worldwide, and it is considered to be among the most widespread mosquito species.[17] In 2015, together with a group of colleagues,Khadijetou Lekweiry reported that the species was seen for the first time in Mauritania.[18]
In 2016,Zika virus-capable mosquito populations have been found adapting for persistence in warm temperate climates. Such a population has been identified to exist in parts ofWashington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least the last four winters in the region. One of the study researchers noted, "...some mosquito species are finding ways to survive in normally restrictive environments by taking advantage of underground refugia".[19]As the world's climate becomes warmer, the range ofAedes aegypti and a hardier species originating in Asia, the tiger mosquitoAedes albopictus, which can expand its range to relatively cooler climates, will inexorably spread north and south. Sadie Ryan of theUniversity of Florida was the lead author in a 2019 study that estimated the vulnerability of naïve populations in geographic regions that currently do not harbor vectors i.e., for Zika in the Old World. Ryan's co-author, Georgetown University's Colin Carlson remarked, "Plain and simple, climate change is going to kill a lot of people."[20] As of 2020, the Northern Territory Government Australia and the Darwin City Council have recommended tropical cities initiate rectification programs to rid their cities of potential mosquito breeding stormwater sumps.[21] A 2019 study found that accelerating urbanization and human movement would also contribute to the spread ofAedes mosquitoes.[22]
In continental Europe,Aedes aegypti is not established but it has been found in localities close to Europe such as the Asian part ofTurkey.[23] However, a single adult female specimen was found inMarseille (Southern France) in 2018. On the basis of a genetic study and an analysis of the movements of commercial ships, the origin of the specimen could be traced as coming fromCameroon, in Central Africa.[23]
In 2007, thegenome ofAedes aegypti was published, after it had been sequenced and analyzed by a consortium including scientists atThe Institute for Genomic Research (now part of theJ. Craig Venter Institute), theEuropean Bioinformatics Institute, theBroad Institute, and theUniversity of Notre Dame. The effort in sequencing itsDNA was intended to provide new avenues for research intoinsecticides and possible genetic modification to prevent the spread of virus. This was the second mosquito species to have its genome sequenced in full (the first wasAnopheles gambiae). The published data included the 1.38 billionbase pairs containing the insect's estimated 15,419protein-encoding genes. The sequence indicates the species diverged fromDrosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly) about250 million years ago, andAnopheles gambiae and this species diverged about150 million years ago.[24][25] Matthewset al., 2018 findsA. aegypti to carry a large and diverse number oftransposable elements. Their analysis suggests this is common to all mosquitoes.[26]
Aedes aegypti is avector for transmitting numerouspathogens. According to the Walter Reed Biosystematics Units as of 2022,[27] it is associated with the following 54 viruses and two species ofPlasmodium:
AlthoughAedes aegypti mosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors,[31] in shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, "they can bite and spread infection all year long and at any time of day."[32]
Once a week, scrub off eggs sticking to wet containers, seal or discard them. The mosquitoes prefer to breed in areas ofstagnant water, such as flower vases, uncovered barrels, buckets, and discarded tires, but the most dangerous areas are wet shower floors and toilet tanks, as they allow the mosquitos to breed in the residence. Research has shown that certain chemicals emanating from bacteria in water containers stimulate the female mosquitoes to lay their eggs. They are particularly motivated to lay eggs in water containers that have the correct amounts of specific fatty acids associated with bacteria involved in the degradation of leaves and other organic matter in water. The chemicals associated with the microbial stew are far more stimulating to discerning female mosquitoes than plain or filtered water in which the bacteria once lived.[33]
Wear long-sleeved clothing and long pants when outdoors during the day and evening.
Use mosquito netting over the bed if the bedroom is not air conditioned or screened, and for additional protection, treat the mosquito netting with the insecticide permethrin.
Insect repellents containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) orp-menthane-3,8-diol (fromlemon eucalyptus) were effective in repellingAe. aegypti mosquitoes, while others were less effective or ineffective in a scientific study.[34] TheCenters for Disease Control and Prevention article on "Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods" notes that "Studies suggest that concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%".[35] Other insect repellents recommended by the CDC include Picaridin (KBR 3023/icaridin),IR3535, and2-undecanone.[36]
Pyrethroids are commonly used.[37] This widespread use of pyrethroids andDDT has causedknockdown resistance (kdr) mutations. Almost no research has been done on thefitness implications. Studies by Kumaret al., 2009 on deltamethrin in India, Plernsubet al., 2013 onpermethrin in Thailand, by Jaramillo-Oet al., 2014 onλ-cyhalothrin in Colombia, by Alvarez-Gonzalezet al., 2017 ondeltamethrin in Venezuela, are all substantiallyconfounded. As of 2019, understanding ofselective pressure under withdrawal of insecticide is hence limited.[37]
Ae. aegypti has beengenetically modified to suppress its own species in an approach similar to thesterile insect technique, thereby reducing the risk of disease. The mosquitoes, known asOX513A, were developed byOxitec, a spinout ofOxford University. Field trials in theCayman Islands,[38] inJuazeiro,[39][40] Brazil,[38] by Carvalhoet al., 2015,[39][40] and inPanama[38] by Neiraet al., 2014[39] have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. This mosquito suppression effect is achieved by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease. The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring. To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off (using theTet-Off system) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotictetracycline), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed.[41]
The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes areAe. aegypti and only breed withAe. aegypti. The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment.[42][43]
In Brazil, the modified mosquitoes were approved by the National Biosecurity Technical Commission for releases throughout the country. Insects were released into the wild populations of Brazil, Malaysia, and the Cayman Islands in 2012.[44][45] In July 2015, the city ofPiracicaba, São Paulo, started releasing the OX513A mosquitoes.[46][47] In 2015, the UK House of Lords called on the government to support more work on genetically modified insects in the interest of global health.[48] In 2016, the United StatesFood and Drug Administration granted preliminary approval for the use of modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the Zika virus.[49]
Using CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing to engineer the genome ofAedes aegypti genes like ECFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein), Nix (male-determining factor gene), Aaeg-wtrw (Ae. aegypti water witch locus), Kmo (kynurenine 3-monoxygenase), loqs (loquacious), r2d2 (r2d2 protein), ku70 (ku heterodimer protein gene) and lig4 (ligase4) were targeted to modify the genome ofAedes aegypti. The new mutant will become incapable of pathogen transmission or result in population control.[51]
In 2016 research into the use of a bacterium calledWolbachia as a method of biocontrol was published showing that invasion ofAe. aegypti by the endosymbiotic bacteria allows mosquitos to be resistant to certain arboviruses such as dengue fever and Zika virus strains currently circulating.[52][53][54] In 2017Alphabet, Inc. started theDebug Project to infect males of this species withWolbachia bacteria, interrupting the reproductive cycle of these animals.[55]
Fungal speciesErynia conica (from the familyEntomophthoraceae) infects (and kills) two types of mosquitos:Aedes aegypti andCulex restuans. Studies on the fungus have been carried out on its potiential use as a biological control of the mosquitos.[56]
The species was first named (asCulex aegypti) in 1757 byFredric Hasselquist in his treatiseIter Palaestinum.[57] Hasselquist was provided with the names and descriptions by his mentor,Carl Linnaeus. This work was later translated into German and published in 1762 asReise nach Palästina.[58]
Ae. aegypti feeding on a human
To stabilise the nomenclature, a petition to theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was made by P. F. Mattingly, Alan Stone, and Kenneth L. Knight in 1962.[59] It also transpired that, although the nameAedes aegypti was universally used for the yellow fever mosquito, Linnaeus had actually described a species now known asAedes (Ochlerotatus)caspius.[59] In 1964, the commission ruled in favour of the proposal, validating Linnaeus' name, and transferring it to the species for which it was in general use.[60]
The yellow fever mosquito belongs to the tribe Aedini of the dipteran familyCulicidae and to the genusAedes and subgenusStegomyia. According to one recent analysis, the subgenusStegomyia of the genusAedes should be raised to the level of genus.[61] The proposed name change has been ignored by most scientists;[62] at least one scientific journal, theJournal of Medical Entomology, has officially encouraged authors dealing with aedile mosquitoes to continue to use the traditional names, unless they have particular reasons for not doing so.[63] The generic name comes from the Ancient Greekἀηδής,aēdēs, meaning "unpleasant"[64] or "odious".
This classification is complicated by the results of Gloria-Soriaet al., 2016. Although confirming the existence of these two major subspecies, Gloria-Soraet al. finds greater worldwide diversity than previously recognized and a large number of distinct populations separated by various geographic factors.[2][3]Aedes aegypti formosus is found in natural habitats such as forests, whileAedes aegypti aegypti has adapted to urban domestic habitats.[65]
^abNeal L. Evenhuis; Samuel M. Gon III (2007)."22. Family Culicidae"(PDF). In Neal L. Evenhuis (ed.).Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions.Bishop Museum. pp. 191–218. RetrievedFebruary 4, 2012.
^abcZettel, Catherine; Kaufman, Phillip (2022-06-17) [Originally published February 2009]. Rhodes, Elena; Weigel, Kay (eds.)."Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus)".entnemdept.ufl.edu. Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. EENY-434. Retrieved2025-09-23.
^Eisen, L.; Moore, C. G. (2013). "Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti in the Continental United States: A Vector at the Cool Margin of Its Geographic Range".Journal of Medical Entomology.50 (3):467–478.doi:10.1603/ME12245.PMID23802440.S2CID16922806.
^Kraemer, Moritz U. G.; Reiner, Robert C.; Brady, Oliver J.; Messina, Jane P.; Gilbert, Marius; Pigott, David M.; Yi, Dingdong; Johnson, Kimberly; Earl, Lucas; Marczak, Laurie B.; Shirude, Shreya; Davis Weaver, Nicole; Bisanzio, Donal; Perkins, T. Alex; Lai, Shengjie; Lu, Xin; Jones, Peter; Coelho, Giovanini E.; Carvalho, Roberta G.; Van Bortel, Wim; Marsboom, Cedric; Hendrickx, Guy; Schaffner, Francis; Moore, Chester G.; Nax, Heinrich H.; Bengtsson, Linus; Wetter, Erik; Tatem, Andrew J.; Brownstein, John S.; Smith, David L.; Lambrechts, Louis; Cauchemez, Simon; Linard, Catherine; Faria, Nuno R.; Pybus, Oliver G.; Scott, Thomas W.; Liu, Qiyong; Yu, Hongjie; Wint, G. R. William; Hay, Simon I.; Golding, Nick (4 March 2019)."Past and future spread of the arbovirus vectorsAedes aegypti andAedes albopictus".Nature Microbiology.4 (5):854–863.doi:10.1038/s41564-019-0376-y.PMC6522366.PMID30833735.
^Utarini, Adi; Indriani, Citra; Ahmad, Riris A.; Tantowijoyo, Warsito; Arguni, Eggi; Ansari, M. Ridwan; Supriyati, Endah; Wardana, D. Satria; Meitika, Yeti; Ernesia, Inggrid; Nurhayati, Indah; Prabowo, Equatori; Andari, Bekti; Green, Benjamin R.; Hodgson, Lauren; Cutcher, Zoe; Rancès, Edwige; Ryan, Peter A.; O'Neill, Scott L.; Dufault, Suzanne M.; Tanamas, Stephanie K.; Jewell, Nicholas P.; Anders, Katherine L.; Simmons, Cameron P. (10 June 2021)."Efficacy of Wolbachia-Infected Mosquito Deployments for the Control of Dengue".New England Journal of Medicine.384 (23):2177–2186.doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2030243.PMC8103655.PMID34107180.
^Cuebas-Incle, E. L. (December 1992). "Infection of adult mosquitoes by the entomopathogenic fungus Erynia conica (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae)".J Am Mosq Control Assoc.8 (4):367–71.PMID1474381.
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