ThePeoples of the West

fromtheWeilue魏略
by Yu Huan魚豢

AThird Century Chinese Account
Composed between 239 and 265CE
Quoted inzhuan 30 of theSanguozhi
Published in 429CE

DraftEnglish translation

by

JohnE. Hill

©September, 2004

“Iwas not born knowledgeable,
I am devoted to antiquity and am quick to seek knowledge.”

KongQiu孔丘 (Confucius).
Lunyu, 7, 19.

Preface

There are several important Chinesetexts relating to the early development of the “Silk Routes” thathave not been translated into English previously. They include the‘Chapter on the Western Regions,’ several biographies of theChinese generals who expanded Chinese power to the west, from theHou Hanshu(covering the period from 25-220CE); and animportant 3rd century geographical and historical text called theWeilue.My aim is to complete up-to-date, fully annotated translations of these texts,and make them easily available to all.

•  My first translation, adraft annotated version ofThe Western Regions According to the Hou Hanshu, appeared on the Silk Road Seattlewebsite in May of 2002. The response from readers was beyond any expectations.I was inundated with a wealth of new material, comments and suggestions fromscholars in more than 30 countries. This led to a thorough revision andupdating of my original draft which had been available on this site since July2003. It is presently being revised once more before being published in bookform.

•  I am hoping, by thepublication of this draft version of my annotated translation of theWeilueon the same site to elicit a similar response. This should lead to a moreaccurate and useful final document. I intend to add the biographies of severalof the Chinese generals who were instrumental in opening the main “SilkRoutes” to the west at a later date.

•  I have included a numberof lengthy quotations in the notes because I believe they are of importance,well-stated, and of particular interest. I have also included some notes sentto me privately in emails. I have tried to get permission from all thesecorrespondents but have not heard back from all of them yet. If authors haveany objections to my use of their material I hope they will contact me and Iwill gladly make adjustments.

•  Some of the longer notes,which may be of more general interest, I have included as Appendices at the endof the document so they can be easily found and accessed.

•  Publishing thistranslation will, I hope, make theWeilue of interest to the generalreader, while retaining enough information in the notes to make it useful forspecialists. I have tried to keep the text itself as uncluttered as possible sothat it may be comfortably read as a whole.

•  I hope the work will helprekindle interest in the extensive early contacts and exchanges between Eastand West, and how they shaped the development of our cultures and ourtechnologies. May it inspire readers to search for answers to some of the manyremaining mysteries in the text. I also hope that you will share at least someof the great pleasure I have received while studying this fascinating work.

•  Your comments,corrections, criticisms or suggestions are most welcome and will be taken intoaccount in future revisions and, if used, full credit will be given. Pleasecontact me directly – not through the Silk Road Seattle website. I willtry to answer any questions – my contact details are:

John E. Hill
PO Box 467
Cooktown, Qld.,
AUSTRALIA 4895
Email:wynhill@bigpond.com

Acknowledgements

Many, manypeople have helped to encourage me and with the research that went into thisnew draft version of theWeilue.
         Iwould like to acknowledge the constant help and encouragement I have receivedfrom Jo Wynter, my beloved partner of almost 30 years. Without her untiringpatience and constant help, editing and suggestions, none of my historical workwould have ever come to fruition.
         Myspecial thanks go to Professor Fida Hassnain, who originally fired myenthusiasm in early Indian history, took me to visit many Kushan sites, helpedme explore the archaeological collections held in Kashmir, while conveying theknowledge he had gained through his long career; Professor Daniel Waugh for hisencouragement and for making it possible to publish my work on the Silk RoadSeattle website; and to Professor Victor M. Mair for ongoing advice andassistance. Others who have generously provided valuable help include:

Nettie K. Adams, Dr. Farhad Assar, Dr. Thomas Bartlett, ProfessorChristopher I. Beckwith, Dr. Craig Benjamin, Professor Alison Betts, ProfessorE. Bruce Brooks, Professor Felix Chami,Dr. T. Matthew Ciolek, Professor Joe Cribb, Chris M.Dorn’eich, Professor Étienne de la Vaissière, Aayko Eyma,Professor Richard N. Frye, Professor M. Gawlikowski, Dan Gibson, GastonGiulliani, Dr. Irene L. Good, Dr. David T. Graf, Paul Greenhall, Chris Hopkins,Professor Karl Jettmar, Agnes Korn, Henriette Kress, Whalen Lai, ValérieLefebvre-Aladwi, Renzo Lucherini, Pavel Lurje, Thomas K. Mallon-McCorgray, Dr.Michael Macdonald, Professor Daniel L. McKinley, Raoul Mclaughlin, FelicitasMaeder, Josef Maier, Samir Masri; Professor Irina Merzliakova, John Moffett,Khademi Nadooshan, Professor Giorgio Nebbia, Mark Passehl, Prof. E. G.Pulleyblank, Lic. Paola Raffetta, Fr. Yves Raguin, S.J., Professor NaderRastegar, Professor Donald Redford, Joachim K. Rennstich, Janet Rizvi, PeterRowland, Dr. Edmund Ryden, Orit Shamir, Michael Schimmelpfennig, ProfessorSteven Sidebotham, Professor Nicholas Sims-Williams, Sören Stark, Dr.Sebastian Stride, Dr. Mehmet Tezcan, Professor E. H. Uphill, Dr. Chunyun WANG,Professor Donald B. Wagner, Antonia Willis, Richard Wong, and the Editorialstaff of Shen-Nong of Integrated Chinese Medicine Holdings Ltd., in Hong Kong (www.icm.com.hk).

Almostinevitably I will have forgotten some who have helped me along the way –and a few have asked not to be named. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to you aswell.
         Thankyou all so very much. I will be forever in your debt. This is your work as wellas mine – there is no way I could have written it without the kindsupport and assistance I received from you. I hope you will find it worthy andwill be pleased with it. I look forward to any suggestions you may have toimprove it in the future.

Introduction

About this Translation

• This translation has been made from the text of theWeilue as containedin the five volumeSanguozhi published by the New China BookstorePublishing House, Beijing, 1975, zhuan 30: 858-863. I have also checkedcritical passages against other, earlier, editions.

• As in the modern world, the borders of countries were constantly changing. Inaddition, many of the peoples mentioned in theWeilue were nomadic, andregularly moved from place to place. Peoples of different ethnic backgroundsand even languages were sometimes grouped together under a common name as“confederations” or “tribes,” which at times can bequite confusing for the reader.

• I have divided the text into numbered and headed sections for clarity and easeof use. Modern place-name equivalents are in rounded brackets after the Chinesenames. Many are well-established and widely accepted. Tentative identificationsare indicated with a question mark, and the evidence is discussed in the notes.
          The modern place-namesadopted here sometimes only refer to the general location of the ancient sitesmentioned in the text. Usually I have only given the name of the nearest moderntown, or the main town of an oasis. For example, the oasis of Kashgar (Shule)contained several towns, as it still does, and these are sometimes referred toindividually. Literal translations of place-names and products have been putwithin single inverted commas, such as: ‘Eastern Division.’
          Where needed forclarity, I have added comments and notes in square brackets, eg: “thethree heavenly bodies [the sun, moon, and stars].” Identifications thatremain uncertain are indicated by a question mark.

• Because the older Wade-Giles system of Romanizing Chinese is still commonlyused, you will find it employed in many of the quotes given in my notes. Ihave, therefore, included the Wade-Giles equivalents after the Pinyin for manynames and terms in italics and within square brackets.

• Chinese characters are omitted from the translation itself to make it easier toread. The characters for all major place-names and terms are included in theappropriate notes.

• For those wishing to check the reconstructed ancient pronunciations I highlyrecommend first checking Edwin Pulleyblank’s masterfulLexicon ofReconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, andEarly Mandarin (1991), UBC Press, Vancouver. It is arranged alphabeticallyaccording to the Pinyin renderings and also contains references to the entriesin Karlgren’s earlier, but still useful,Grammata Serica (Recensa).Pulleyblank’s listing of the reference numbers to the characters inKarlgren’s work probably provides the most convenient way of findingparticular characters in that work, which is notoriously difficult to access.Some additional reconstructions have been added from theGrand dictionnaireRicci de la langue chinoise. 7 volumes. Instituts Ricci (Paris –Taipei). Desclée de Brouwer. 2001, which is abbreviated asGR inthe entries.

• Note that the EMC reconstructions are only reliable back to the time when theQieyundictionary was completed in 601CE, asPulleyblank himself notes on p. 20 of hisLexicon. This means there wasa gap of over 300 years between the composition of theWeilue and thebest phonetic reconstructions for the characters we have at our disposal.
          Although thereconstructions back to the late 6th century are frequently useful in helpingto identify place-names, there were undoubtedly significant phonetic changesbetween the 3^rd century and 6^th centuryCE. Also, there were likely significant differencesin pronunciation between the Chinese soldiers and settlers on the northwestfrontiers and the inhabitants of the capital.

•  The reconstructions of “Archaic Chinese” according toKarlgren’sGrammata Serica, in which he attempts to reconstructpronunciations back to the Chou period (up tocirca 220BCE), are also included. These reconstructions of“Archaic Chinese” are indicated by the use of a preceding asterisk:*. Sometimes Karlgren’s attempts to provide these earlier reconstructionsare of value, but they should be regarded with caution. They are followedby Karlgren’s “Ancient Chinese,” which are his reconstructionsfor the period equivalent to Pulleyblank’s EMC.
          As entries are oftendifficult to find in Karlgren’s book, I have included his numberingsystem preceded by “K”, so a typical entry from his work will looklike this: K. 139s *g’ân / γân.

• Quotes from French authors have been translated into English and usuallyadapted (e.g. by changing the French E.F.E.O. romanizations into Pinyin,leaving out unnecessary footnotes and some of the Chinese characters).

• Some notes from my earlier translation of theChapter on the Western RegionsAccording to the Hou Hanshu (abbreviated here asCWR) are duplicatedhere to save the reader the tedious task of checking the notes from one work tothe other.

About Fonts and Characters

• I have avoided using Chinese characters in the Text itself. Chinese charactersas found in the Notes will require the enabling of “Unicode”Chinese characters. Most modern computer programs come with the ability todisplay Chinese characters but some readers may have to install or “enable”them in their browser to be able to read the Notes and Appendices properly.

• Some of the rarer characters may not be available in the fonts on yourcomputer. In this case, if you are using Windows 2000 or XP format, try toobtain the very extensive “Simsun (Founder Extended)” font which isavailable on the (unfortunately very expensive) Microsoft Office Proofing ToolsCD.
          Those with Office XP2002 or later should be able to install it from your Office XP CD using theinformation available at:http://www.i18nwithvb.com/surrogate_ime/background.htm

• For Mac users I recommend checking thefollowing website for information on Chinese fonts for the various OS Xoperating systems:http://www.yale.edu/chinesemac/pages/os_x.html
  

• For Linux users I recommend checking thefollowing website for information on Chinese fonts:http://seba.studentenweb.org/thesis/linux.php     

• For the balance of the document (including Chinese romanizations and the quotesfrom various other languages), I have used “Gentium” fontthroughout as it elegant, and contains the greatest number of diacritics (oraccents) needed. Best of all, is free and available now in Linux, Mac and PCformats.

If this font is not on already your computer it can be easilydownloaded and installed from this site, or: information on the Gentium fontcan be found at:http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=Gentium&_sc=1

Gentium fonts may be downloaded from:http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=Gentium_download&_sc=1Fortunately, it is free, and not a large file, and so should not take too longto download and install in your “Fonts” folder.

• The use of “Gentium” has allowed me accurately represent almost allthe diacritics employed in the quotes. Don’t forget, if you can’tfind exactly the diacritic you need already in the list of characters, youcan combine marks from the “Combining Diacritical Marks” heading,by typing the character you wish to mark and then going to “Symbol”and adding the appropriate diacritical mark. This works reasonably well in mostcases.
          In spite of this, somereaders may still experience difficulties. However, I believe that most of thenotes will be meaningful even if the odd character is missed. If readerscontinue to have problems, or wish to discuss some point, contact the authordirectly at:wynhill@bigpond.com . Butplease – do not contact the Webmaster.

About The Text.

• TheWeilue fills in many gaps in our knowledge of the extensiveinternational contacts and trade networks at this early period. The kingdom ofWei was one of the ‘Three Kingdoms’ (Wei, Wu and Shu) formed afterthe disintegration of the Han dynasty in 220CE. Its capital remained at Luoyang [Loyang],which had also been the capital of the Later Han dynasty.

“The Wei controlled the north and north-west, being basedessentially on the Yellow River valley with their capital at Loyang ; the Wu inthe south and south-east ruled the Yangtze valley and the two Kuang provinces,while the Shu were based on the Szechuan basin in the east, but also commandedthe hills of Kweichow and part of Yunnan.” Needham (1978), p. 40.

• The original text of theWeilue, or “Brief Account of the WeiDynasty,” by Yu Huan has, sadly, been lost. Fortunately, this chapteron thexirong, or ‘Peoples of the West’, was quoted in asextensive footnote to theSanguozhi by Pei Songzhi, first published inCE 429.

• Unfortunately, Yu Huan does not mention his sources in the text that hassurvived. Some of this new data undoubtedly came to China via traders from DaQin. Land communications with the West apparently continued relativelyuninterrupted to the northern state of Wei after the fall of the Han dynasty.
          Wei was the northernmostof the three kingdoms the Han empire had split into and it controlled access toDunhuang and the main trade routes to the west. It was also, of course, thestate that Yu Huan lived in. An entry of the “Chronicle of the ThreeKingdoms” for the year 222CE informsus:

“Second month (Mar. 1-29). The Kings of Shan-shan鄯善,Ch’iu-tsŭ龜玆 (Kutcha), and Yü-tien于闐(Khotan) each dispatched an envoy to offer tribute. [The Emperor said in anedict: “‘The Hsi-jung西戎 cameto submit to his arrangements,’ and ‘The Ti-ch’iang氐羌 cameto seek acknowledgment,’ – these lines are sung in praise in theShih詩 and theShu書. Now, the distantbarbarian tribes of the Western Regions have all come to offer submission andallegiance to us. Envoys shall be sent to soothe them.”] From this timeon, the Western Regions maintained contact with China, and thewu-chichiao-yü戊己校尉 was appointed.” Fang (1965), p. 98. [Note:this latter title is usually transcribed as: “wu- (ormao-)chihsiao-wei” – which translates as the “MaojiCommandant” – see Hucker No. 2456 andTWR notes 1.5 and22.5. Also, “the Ti-ch’iang” above would be better renderedas “the Ti and the Ch’iang.”] 

•  There is information in theWeilue about the maritimeroutes to the Roman Empire and it is quite possible that some, or all, of thenew information on the Roman Empire and Parthia came from foreign sailors. Onerecord of information obtained from such sources (whichmay have beenavailable to Yu Huan) is recorded in theLiangshu:

“During the 5th year of theHuangwu period of the reign of Sun Quan [=CE 226] a merchant of Da Qin, whose name was Qin Luncame to Jiaozhi [Tongking]; the prefect [taishou] of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao,sent him to Sun Quan [the Wu emperor], who asked him for a report on his nativecountry and its people. Qinlun prepared a statement and replied. At the timeZhuke [nephew to Zhuke Liang, alias Kun Ming] chastised Dan Yang [= Jiang Nan]and they had caught blackish coloured dwarfs. When Qin Lun saw them he saidthat in Da Qin these men were rarely seen. Sun Quan then sent male and femaledwarfs, ten of each, in charge of an officer, Liu Xian of Huiji [a district inZhejiang], to accompany Qin Lun. Liu Xian died on the road, whereupon Qin Lunreturned direct to his native country.” Adapted from Hirth (1885), pp.47-48.

Note: Inthe name of the “Roman” merchant Qin Lun above, Qin, as is standardChinese practice with foreign names, stands for ‘from Da Qin’ orthe Roman Empire. The old pronunciation of the personal nameLun論 isreconstructed as: K. 470b *li̯wən / li̯uĕnor *lwən/ luən; EMC lwənor lwən^h. This, as RenzoLucherini has kindly pointed out in a private communication of 23 May, 2004,may well have represented the Greek name of Leon.

• Yu Huan apparently never left China, but he collected a large amount ofinformation on the countries to the west of China including Parthia, India, andthe Roman Empire, and the various routes to them. Some of this information hadreached China well before Yu Huan’s time, and can also be found in thesections dealing with the ‘Western Regions’ of theShiji,theHanshu, and theHou Hanshu.

• In spite of this repetition of earlier (and sometimes fanciful) information,theWeilue contains much new, unique, and generally trustworthymaterial. Most of it dates from the late second and early third centuriesCE. It is this new information that makes theWeiluesuch a valuable source. Most of the new information appears to have comefrom the Later Han dynasty, before China was to a large extent cut off from theWest by civil wars and unrest along its borders during the late 2nd centuryCE.

“The time of the Han dynasty, especially the Later Han, was oneof the relatively important scientific periods in Chinese history. There weregreat advances in astronomy, improvements in the calendar, an outstandingdevelopment in the earth sciences, and foundations laid for methods ofclassifying plants and animals; alchemy flourished, and the first book everwritten on the subject appeared (A.D. 142). A sceptical and rationalist way ofthinking developed, particularly about A.D. 80 in the hands of Wang Chhung[Wang Chong].., while there were two Han princes who also took part in activeintellectual life. One, Tê of Ho-Chien, was a scholar and bibliophile whopreserved the important ‘Artificer’s Record’ section of theChouLi (Records of the Rites of Chou), the other was the almost legendary LiuAn of Huai-Nan, who gave his name to theHuai Nan Tzu, a compendium onall the science of the day and one of the most important monuments of ancientChinese scientific thought. Indeed, bibliography as a whole received greatstimulus, for the Han period marked the first systematic development of booklists; compiled by experts in astronomy, medicine, military science, history,magic and divination, these were incorporated into the Han histories and listsome 700 works written on wooden or bamboo tablets, and on silk. Buddhism alsoentered China in Later Han times and the first sutras were translated intoChinese at the capital, Loyang.
          In technology the Hanage was marked by the invention and spread of the use of paper, by numerousdevelopments in ceramics such as the first glazes and the introduction of amaterial that was the forerunner of porcelain, by advances in architecturaltechniques such as making decorated bricks and tiles, and by raising the levelof textile technology to a stage not approached by Iran or Europe untilcenturies later. A large number of natural products new to China were alsoimported: alfalfa and the grape-vine from the west, oranges, lemons, betel nutsand lychees from the south and south-west. From the west also came improved breedsof horses, and from Khotan, possibly from Burma too, jade arrived in largequantities. Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Han people in nauticaltechnology was the cardinal invention of the axial rudder at least as early asthe first century A.D.
          Towards the end of LaterHan times, palace revolutions became increasingly frequent, and in 184 afarming crisis led to a peasant revolt guided, in this case, by the‘Yellow Turban’ secret society. Although the revolt was suppressed,it left some of the army generals in positions of great power, and by 220 thecentral government found itself ineffective. The country became divided, andfor the next half century remained fragmented into three independent kingdomsin a state of permanent mutual hostility.” Needham (1978), pp. 39-40.

• Along with these great scientific and technological exchanges came new ideas,philosophies and religions. Foreign ideas and religions spread incrediblyquickly via the trade routes across the whole of Eurasia and much of Africa.The acceleration of information exchange was unprecedented. Buddhism becameestablished in Central Asia well before the turn of the millennium and in Chinaduring the 1^st centuryCE.

• There is also some fairly convincing evidence that Christianity and Judaism hadreached both China and India by the first centuryCE, and Christianity was definitely well-establishedin southern India at least by the second centuryCE. This rapid spread of religions was to continue inlater centuries with Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Islam. See:Appendix I: “The Spread of Ideas and Religions Along the TradeRoutes.”

Translator’s Notes

• The section on Da Qin (Roman territory) from theWeilue was translatedinto English, with excellent notes, by Friedrich Hirth in his pioneeringvolume,China and the Roman Orient, first published in 1885. He alsoincluded translations of a wide range of other Chinese texts relating to Da Qin(the Roman Empire) and the Chinese text of each is included, making it an essentialreference, even today.

• This was followed in 1905 by a translation of the rest of the text of theWeilueinto French by Édouard Chavannes, under the title of, “Les paysd’occident d’après le Wei lio.”
          Chavannes’translation is accompanied by copious notes in which he clarified numerousobscurities, and convincingly identified many of the countries and townsmentioned in theWeilue, especially along the eastern sections of theoverland trade routes. These are, to my knowledge, the only translations ofsignificant portions of the text into European languages to date.

• In 1980 I was living in India, beginning to study the history of the KushanEmpire, when Professor Edwin Pulleyblank very kindly sent me copies ofChavannes’ annotated French translations of theWeilue and thechapter on the ‘Western Regions’ as well as other key texts fromtheHou Hanshu. I translated Chavannes’ accounts into English asan aid to my studies. What a wonderful treasure chest of information Idiscovered there!
          It was soon clear to me,however, that the translations and notes were badly in need of expansion andupdating, and, as there had never been a complete translation of the wholetexts into English, I decided to began teaching myself Chinese so I could studyand translate the original Chinese texts.
          I had not realised whenI first started in 1980 what an immense and lengthy, but rewarding, task thetranslating and annotating theWeilue would be. It was an audaciousundertaking, as my knowledge of Chinese was (and still is) very limited. Itwould have been impossible without the help of many experts and friends and anymerits this new translation might have are due largely to their kind andgenerous suggestions and advice.

• An excellent and detailed review of Chavannes’ translation of theWeilue(which, unfortunately, excludes the section on Da Qin or the Roman Empire) waspublished by Paul Pelliot inBEFEO 6 (1906), pp. 361-400, in which hecorrected some of the major mistakes and weaknesses in Chavannes’pioneering translation. I include here some of his more important observationsand notes:

“Mr. Chavannes always makes use of the edition of thetwenty-four historians published by the library of Tushujicheng in Shanghaifrom 1888. This edition has the advantage of being printed clearly in aconvenient format and is relatively inexpensive. It accurately reproduces theImperial edition published in the 18^th century by order of Qianlongand which is authoritative in China today. It is just that this edition inmoving characters¹, generally correct for theShiji or theHistoriesof the Han, and which is at the same time the first and the only truereflection of the dynastic histories, is quite careless from theSanguozhionwards. Additionally, Mr. Chavannes has had at his disposal the edition of theSanguozhi known as theBaorentang (p. 550, n. 2; p. 555, n. 1),but he does not seem to have always checked it for, in at least two cases it isunlikely that theBaorentang edition gives readings which, in theedition of Shanghai are clearly printing errors: on p. 522, “自項氐Zixiang Di” is incorrect for “白項氐Baixiang Di” and the correct reading is found in the example in thexylographic edition published byJiangnanshuju in 1887¹. Itis the same for the魏卑 Weibi of p. 526 where Mr. Chavannes clearly seesthat it ought to be written鮮卑 Xianbi and which is, in fact, correctly writtenXianbi in the edition ofJiangnanshuju and, very probably, in that oftheBaorentang. The edition of 1877 that I quote here is, however, farfrom being satisfactory itself. In the section on Da Qin that Mr. Chavannes hasnot translated, it presents a printing fault which has misled Mr. Hirth andwhich I have already had the occasion to note (B.E.F.E.-O., iv, p. 175,n. 3). As to the rest of this section taken from theWeilue, one willfind in the large format edition of 1887 the faulty readings:祿福 Lufuin place of the福祿 Fulu of Mr. Chavannes (p. 521);絶精Juejing instead of精絶 Jingjue (p. 556). On the other hand, this sameedition of 1887 gives readings or characters in certain places that one cannotrejecta priori: such as the fact that it always writes Yuedi月氐 andnot Yuezhi月氏²,領 ling in place of嶺 (although Ido not believe the two characters were used interchangeably); in the name ofYulai (p. 558), one finds于yuin place of its equivalent於 ; Danduo (p. 526) is written with柘toand not with拓tuo[note Chavannes (1905), p. 526, n. 5, writes: “The character拓 is alsopronouncedzhi; but the pronunciationtuo appears preferable whenit refers to the pronunciation of foreign sounds [there is a typographicalerror here where Chavannes gives ‘nons’ instead of ‘sons’].”The皮亢 Pikang of p. 558 is nota priori betterthan the皮宂 Pirong given in the edition of 1887. In the enigmatictitle that the edition of the library of Tushujicheng gives in the form of白疏聞bosuwen (p. 550), the edition of 1887 agrees with othersources that have閒xian in place of聞wen.All these examples show that one cannot safely translate using a singlecontemporary edition of the dynastic histories. The first palace edition alonedeserves complete trust for the text adopted under Qianlong, and yet moderncriticism can only see there the version which was followed by the scholars ofthe 18^th century, but not a sufficiently reliable text thatcomparison with the editions of the Sung, Yuan, or the Ming would be withoutprofit³.
          All these editions, fromwhatever period, have this in common, that they have not modified the text evenif it was clearly in error. Disregarding the copying or printing faults thatthey inevitably present in greater or lesser numbers, the differences betweenthe editions to which Chinese or European science are able to refer to alwaysprovide various readings furnished by previous printed or manuscript examples,and the various editors have not chosen between them in the same manner. Thisprudence, this respect for the text, is one of the principal merits of Chinesescholarship and it is, in part, due to this that the dynastic histories haveretained such great authority. But, as a result, commentaries are necessary toestablish, whether by comparison between the dynastic histories or referring toother works of Chinese literature, if a certain passage is certainly or probablyin error, and in which manner it ought to be corrected. It is principally underthe present dynasty, which is the great period of Chinese exegesis, that thisresearch has been undertaken.”

Page 365, note 1. I have several times, and withothers with me, spoken of thelithographic orphotolithographicedition of the twenty-four historians. This is the edition used here by Mr.Chavannes ; it was published in 1888 and in the following years in a smallformat, and, in fact, has been carried out with the use of mobile metalliccharacters. The same applies to the corresponding edition of theTushujicheng.

Page 366, note 1. This xylographic edition of 1887does not, however, reproduce the official edition of the 18^thcentury, but that published under the Ming by the汲古閣Jiguge. It is known that theJigugeof the毛 Mao family was the bestpublishing house existing during the Ming. There is the catalogue of what waspublished there (cf. WYLIE,Notes on Chinese literature p. 60). Theedition of the Jiangnanshuju which appeared in 1887 is in the library of theÉcole des Langues orientales.

Page 366, note 2. This form月氐 Yuedi has not been neglected, ifone refers to the remarks of Mr. FRANKE in hisBeiträge ausChinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Türkvölker und SkythenZentralasiens (Berlin, 1904), where its existence prior to theWeishuis disputed : yet there was a printing fault. One sees that it is a matter ofthe edition. In reality, I believe that the ancient manuscripts rarelydistinguished between大da and太dai,氐di and氏zhi,祗zhi and祇qi. The unity of the ancient formsof these dual characters has survived until now in spirit. As for the form月支 Yuezhi, it should be noted thatit has also served for writing the name of a Korean principality (Sanguozhi,ch. 30, folio 13).

Page 366, note 3. We have not so much as mentionedancient Chinese manuscripts. Meanwhile, exception should be made for those thathave been rediscovered in Japan over the last few years. Among them is amanuscript from the Tang period giving the食貨忎Shihuozhi of theQian Hanshuof BanGu with commentary by Yan Shigu, that is to say, a portion of the threecanonical histories which have never ceased attracting attention and which, asa consequence, have been transmitted with the greatest care. Now, on thischapter alone, there are about a hundred characters different from the usualtext. Cf. on this subjectB.E.F.E.-O., ii. 335.

Translated and adapted from Pelliot (1906), pp. 365-367 and nn.

• Throughout this translation I have relied primarily on theWeilue asquoted in theSanguozhi, New China Library 1975 Edition, published bythe New China Bookstore Publishing House, Beijing. This is generally regardedas an authoritative an accurate rendition, with the added advantage ofincluding punctuations. Occasional small differences with other editions havebeen dealt with in the Notes.

• Paper was a new invention, first recorded in China in the year 105CE (although recent research indicates it was probablyinvented previous to this usually accepted date). Prior to this books wereusually written on bamboo slips or on silk. It is unclear whether Yu Huan hadaccess to paper or not. The reader should be aware that this chapter has onlysurvived because it was included as an extensive note to theSanguozhi.Often it is possible to tell whether a bamboo slip has been lost because theyusually only had a limited number of characters on them; a page of paper couldcontain a larger text. Unfortunately, here one cannot tell for certain, but itdoes seem possible that one or more bamboo slips were lost before the chapterwas recorded in theSanguozhi – particularly near the end ofSection 10.

• The notes, which I hope will make the translation more meaningful andaccessible for readers, have proved to be even more difficult and demandingthan the translation itself. In particular, the identification of some of theplace-names and products mentioned in the text are still unresolved; andcontinue to be vigorously debated.

About the Dating and Background of the Text

Chavannes,in his introduction, convincingly dates the composition of the text:

“The biography of Yu Huan has not been admitted to the canonicalhistories. Therefore, we would only be able to guess at the date at which thisauthor wrote if a celebrated critic of the Tang period, Liu Zhiji劉知幾,had not left us, in hisShi tong史通published in 710, this very short bit of information:

‘Previously, during the Wei period (220-265), Yu Huan,originally from the capital (Changan), composed theWeilue without beingofficially given the job. The narrative of these events comes to a halt duringthe reign of Emperor Ming (227-239). . . . ’

Theevidence of Liu Zhiji, dating from a time when theWeilue had not yet disappeared,cannot be put in doubt. It fixes the composition of theWeilue in thetwenty-six years betweenCE 239,the end of Emperor Ming’s reign, and 265, the end of the Weidynasty.” Translated and adapted from Chavannes (1905), pp. 519-520.

Pelliotadds the following information about the date and status of the text in hisreview:

“The first question to resolve was to establish clearly in whichperiod theWeilue was composed. It is known that the author was called魚豢 YuHuan, and various indications support the late testimonies that place him underthe Wei (220-265), but Mr. Chavannes is the first to base this date on a textdefinitely from the 8th century. This text is found in the史通Shi tong of Liu Zhiji劉知幾[661-721], published in 710. Mr. Chavannes believes that it is unique anddecisive. In fact, it is truly the only text that the Chinese bibliographersquote regarding Yu Huan that is not taken from the canonical histories.However, the fact of not coming from the official compilations, regarding materialon Chinese history, does not give more authority to a work. Henceforth we willbe able to call upon a text more than a hundred years older, and more reliable.It is said in the chapter on literature of the dynastic history of the Sui(581-617) that Yu Huan occupied a post oflangzhong郞中(“Palace Gentleman”) under the Wei².”

2.Sui shu,淮南書局 Huainan shuju edition (1871) ch.33 folio 4 b.

Translated and adapted from Pelliot (1906), p. 362.

“After the Tang, the only title that survived, before the completedisappearance of the work, is theWeilue in 50 chapters, mentioned stillin 1225 in the史畧Shilue of Gao Sisun高似孫. Xin Zhu reports another work of Yu Huan, theZhongwaiguan中外官, of which the title has been preserved for us intheNanqi shu南齊書 chapter dedicated to the administration. This was,without doubt, a sort of table of the metropolitan and provincialfunctionaries. Yu Huan is this time qualified as a官儀guanyi, but there is no doubt that it refers to the sameindividual. Here again it is said that Yu Huan lived under the Wei. As theNanjishu deals with the years 479-501, and was compiled in the first half of the6th century, we have in this passage new evidence, 100 years previous to theShuishu, and 200 years before theShih tong, which allows us to fix theperiod in which theWeilue was written in the second third of the 3rdcentury.” Translated and adapted from Pelliot (1906), pp. 363-364.

• Although theWeilue was never classed among the official or‘canonical’ histories, it has always been held in the highestregard by Chinese scholars as a unique and precious source of historical andgeographical information. Pelliot notes:

“Tianlue andWeilue are classed among the雜吏zashi. Mr. Chavannes translates this term by“historians of mixed value.” I am not sure that this is themeaning. Wylie (Notes on ChineseLiterature, p. 25) renderszashiby “miscellaneous” and perhaps he was right. The termtsa“mixed” could apply here to the nature of the subjects dealt with,which are “various,” and not to the greater or lesser knowledge ortalent which the author would have to prove.” Translated and adapted fromPelliot (1906), p. 362, n. 2.[Note: TheABC p. 1230, defines雜吏 as an “unofficialhistory.”]

• Since the time of Chavannes and Pelliot, there has been almost a century ofscholarship devoted to various aspects of the text by scholars from manycountries.
         Recentarchaeological finds, and research on other key texts, notably thePeriplusof the Erythraean Sea, and the chapters on the ‘WesternRegions’ in theShiji, theHanshu, and theHou Hanshu,have helped to throw light on this difficult but important work.
         Inspite of all this attention, many place-names in the text remain unidentified(or the identification is not convincing), and some sections of the routesoutlined in the text have remained unclear. This is especially true of thesections relating to the Roman Empire, and the sea routes between China andEgypt, where the data available is very sparse.

• TheWeiluecontains many place-names which are no longer known in Chinese and which, ifleft unidentified, make the trade routes, and much else besides, impossible todecipher.

• Local place-names frequently change, and the ancient names of places are oftenlong forgotten. Nor are we certain of the local pronunciations in the secondand third centuries CE. As in English, the Chinese sometimes used descriptivenames, such as ‘Salt Lake’, or ‘Red Valley,’ and, atother times, literal translations of foreign names.

• The pronunciation of words change over time, as do the pronunciations of theChinese characters that have been used to transcribe them. The Hantranscriptions of the sounds of local place-names often amount to little morethan rough approximations. Sometimes syllables were dropped, sometimes thepronunciations were drastically altered, particularly as certain foreignphonemes did not exist in Chinese. These processes are also common in Englishwhere we find examples such as ‘Roma’ transcribed as‘Rome’ (single syllable) and ‘Paris with an ‘iss’sound at the end instead of the French ‘ee’.

• It was recognised by both Hirth and Chavannes that, although theWeiluewas composed during the Wei dynasty, most of the geographical information itcontains, especially that on the regions to the west of the Tarim Basin, musthave been collected at an earlier date.

• TheWeilue includes much of the information on the Roman Empire alreadyrecorded inzhuan 118 of theHou Hanshu on the “WesternRegions.” This information seems to have been mainly based on theaccounts of the Chinese envoy, Gan Ying, who had been sent by the famousChinese General Ban Chao, Ban Yong’s father, in CE 97, to the west togather information. It has been either paraphrased from theHou Hanshuitself, or taken from the same sources. On the other hand, much of theinformation on Parthia and the Roman Empire is additional to that included intheHou Hanshu. It was presumably collected after the report of theChinese General Ban Yong to the Emperor in, or just before,CE 125.

• Gan Ying got as far as the banks of the Persian Gulf but was persuaded not togo further by the Parthians. He returned to China in 101CE. Much of this information is duplicated in theWeilue.Fan Ye, the compiler, who died inCE 445,added a few bits of later material to theHou Hanshu (dating up to aboutCE 170). These include this fascinating passage:

“The king of this country [Da Qin] always wanted to send envoysto the Han, but Anxi (Parthia), wishing to control the trade in multi-colouredChinese silks, blocked the route to prevent [the Romans] getting through [toChina].

In the ninthYanxi year [166CE], during the reign of Emperor Huan, the king of DaQin (the Roman Empire), Andun (Marcus AureliusAntoninus), sent envoysfrom beyond the frontiers through Rinan (Commandery on the central Vietnamesecoast), to offer elephant tusks, rhinoceros horn, and turtle shell. This wasthe very first time there was [direct] communication [between the twocountries]. The tribute brought was neither precious nor rare, raisingsuspicion that the accounts [of the ‘envoys’] might beexaggerated.”Hou Hanshu, ch. 118. SeeTWR Section 12.

• Much of the new information in theWeilue is very specific and quite detailed,giving distances and directions between cities, and must have been based onactual travel notes. Who supplied this information is not clear, although theroutes described strongly suggest that they were mainly gathered from Arab,possibly Nabataean, traders.
         However, the many referencesto Anxi (Parthia) indicate that the information in theWeilue on theRoman Empire and Parthia must date from before the collapse of the Parthiansand the founding of the Sasanian Empire in 224CE.
          Indications in the textstrongly suggest that the information on Parthia and the Roman Empire wasgathered after the accession of Meredat to the throne of Mesene/Characene (i.e.sometime afterCE 116), and before the fall of Sura on the Euphrates(along with the whole region between Dura-Europos and Edessa), to the Romans inCE 164-165.

• Wherever possible, the information in theWeilue has been checked withthat of the 1st centuryPeriplus of the Erythraean Sea. This work cannow be confidently dated to between 40 and 70CE and, most probably, betweenCE 40 and 50. See: Fussman (1991); Robin (1991); andCasson (1989): pp. 6-7.

Background Reading

To gainbackground on the period, and especially of the trade between the Roman Empireand the Orient, theWeilue can be read alongside the following texts:

– theShiji [Shih-chi] by Sima Qian [Szu-maCh’ien], particularly chapter 123 on Dayuan [Ta-yüan] which coversup to the end of the 2^nd centuryBCE. See the very readable translation in: Watson,Burton, 1961, II: 264-289. 

– the chapters on the Western Countries (zhuan 61 and 96)of theHanshu which covers the period 125BCE to 23CE(translated and amply annotated by Hulsewé and Loewe inChina inCentral Asia, 1979). (Covers 125BCE toCE 23)

– the chapter on the Western Regions (zhuan 118), of theHouHanshu (23CE to late 2^nd century, with most of theinformation on distant countries dating prior to 125CE): See the 2^nd edition of the annotatedtranslation of myThe Western Regions According to the Hou Hanshu(abbreviated asTWR in this work), which is freely available on the SilkRoad Seattle website:http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html

– the chapter on Chinese expansion into the Tarim Basin (zhuan77) of theHou Hanshu (French translation by Chavannes inT’oungpao 7, 1906, pp. 149-234). (1^st and early 2^nd centuryCE). (I hope to make an English translation of thesebiographies available soon.)

– thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 40-50CE). See the excellent translation (from H. Frisk1927 with up-dates and improvements) with the Greek text and extensive notes byLionel Casson:The Periplus Maris Erythraei. (1989), Princeton,Princeton University Press. Also still useful is William H. Schoff’s 1912translation:The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea.Wilfred H. Schoff. New York, Longmans, Green, and Co. Second Edition.Reprint, New Delhi, Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1974. The main textfrom the earlier translation by Schoff is now fortunately available to all onthis website, although one should still consult both his book andCasson’s more recent one for their useful commentaries.

– theNaturalis historia by Pliny the Elder - completed,except for finishing touches, in 77CE. For afull translation see:Natural History. Pliny the Elder (77CE). Translation by W. H. S. Jones, Loeb ClassicalLibrary, London/Cambridge, Mass. (1961). For a widely available, readable anduseful selection see:Natural History – A Selection. Pliny theElder (77CE). Translated by John F. Healy, London, PenguinBooks. (1991).

– theGeography by Ptolemy completedc. 150CE. The only available English translation is byEdward Luther Stevenson inGeography of Claudius Ptolemy. Reprint NewYork: Dover Publications, Inc. 1991. It is, unfortunately, full of mistakes.Additionally the Greek names have been Romanized, which often makesidentifications unnecessarily difficult.

I have notincluded maps with this translation but strongly recommend having a good atlasat hand while reading the book. Some of the maps available on the “SilkRoad Seattle” website will also prove helpful, especially the detailedmap showing the main routes across the Tarim Basin and the one accompanying theSchoff’s translation ofThe Periplus of the Erythræan Sea.Interactive maps and much additional information may be accessed at thefollowing sites:http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~chgis/chgis_home.html,andhttp://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~chgis/tools/

About Measurements and Administrative Divisions

• The basic units of measurement employed in theWeilue, were the里li and thechi尺. They havevaried considerably through the ages and from district to district.Fortunately, measurements remained stable over the Qin and Han periods, and an inscribedbronze standard measure, dated 9CE, wasdiscovered in 1924 at the Imperial Palace in Beijing. This has allowed accurateconversions to modern measurements. The Hanchi, or ‘foot’is given as equalling 0.231 metres (or 9.095 inches).

• On the basis of this lucky discovery, theli was calculated by Dubs(1955): 160, n. 7 to be 415.8 metres. See also Chapter IV, Appendix I, StandardWeights and Measures of Han Times,ibid., 276-280.
          In most cases, I havegiven the exact equivalents to the nearest kilometre based on this measurementeven when the number ofli given is obviously an approximation (e.g.8,000 or 10,000li). For relatively short distances (less than 100li),I have calculated to the nearest tenth of a kilometre.

• Most, though not all, of the distances between places given in theWeilue– where they can be checked – prove to have been surprisinglyaccurate, especially those in areas controlled at times by the Chinese.
          Sometimes there aremistakes in the distances given in the text. This may be because it is notclear exactly where the ancient route went between two points (or which ofseveral alternatives was used). Occasionally, especially over longer distances,the figures given are obviously widely inaccurate.

• All other conversions of Chinese measurements are based on the valuescalculated by Wan Kuo-ting for the Qin [Ch’in] and Han periods asdescribed by A. F. P. Hulsewé inT’oung pao Archives, Vol.XLIX, Livre 3, 1961: 206-207.

• The main administrative divisions of the Han Empire were the郡jun“commanderies” (or ‘provinces’) and王國wangguo ‘kingdoms.’ These were subdivided into縣xian “counties,”鄕xsiang “districts,” and里li“wards.”

• Some Chinese words have no exact equivalent in English. One such example is theword城cheng, which literally translates as ‘walled town,’ but it wasalso used for large towns that were not walled. It is sometimes rendered‘city,’ but only a handful of thecheng mentioned in theWeiluewould be large enough to be called a ‘city’ in our age ofmegalopolises. Most of them were what we would think of as country towns orprovincial centres. I have translated the word simply as ‘town’ andleave it to the reader to add the nuances according to the context.
          Similarly,國guois used to refer to entities ranging from tiny fiefdoms or even villages toentire empires and can be translated as ‘kingdom,’‘fief,’ ‘nation,’ ‘state,’‘country,’ or ‘empire.’ I have translated it as‘kingdom,’ unless the context specifically indicates otherwise, asmost of these territories seem to have had a hereditary system of rulers atthis period.

• I have used “Western Regions” for the term西域xiyu rather than the usual translation as“Western Countries.” I emphasize thatxiyu is sometimes usedin the specific sense of the kingdoms actually controlled by China on theroutes to the west of “China Proper” (the “Inner”region – the land within the Wall), and sometimes in the far more generalsense of all countries to the west of China.

• The characterdu都 is frequently translated as ‘capital’in spite of the fact that there are many examples of more than oneduexisting in a single state. Additionally, Dubs (1938), p. 28, n. 2, says thatin “ancient times” it referred to “a large walledcity”. I have, therefore usually translated this word as ‘majorcentre’ or ‘large town.’ Sometimes theWeiluedesignates a town as awangzhi王治 whichtranslates literally as the “king’s chief town or residence”and this is much closer to the concept of ‘capital’ as we use ittoday, so I have translated it variously as “the (king’s)capital,” or “the king’s residence.”
          In one place in Section11, just after referring to the fact that Rome controlled hundreds of minorkings, the text becomes more specific, using the termwangsuozhi cheng王所治城 which can be translated as “the king’s centre ofadministration city,” which I have rendered: “the king’sadministrative capital” – i.e. Rome itself. See note 11.25.

• Territories referred to as ‘Han,’ ‘Tianzhu’ (India),‘Anxi’ (Parthia), or ‘Da Qin’ (Rome) were sometimesused very specifically for the home territory, but often far more loosely forterritories controlled by, or tributary to, the main seat of power. Thus, intheHou Hanshu, we find references to the ‘King of Da Qin’(that is, the king of Rome) and, at the same time, subject territories such asEgypt, or the ‘Roman Orient,’ are also referred to simply as DaQin.

THETEXT OF THE WEILUE

Section 1 – The Di Tribes

TheWeilue’sChapter on the Western Rong (‘Peoples of the West’),¹ says:

The Di² have their own kings. Theyoriginally came from far away.

When theHan opened Yi zhou,³and established Wudu Commandery,⁴they drove back the people of this race who dispersed, and took refuge in themountain valleys. Some were at Fulu,⁵ and others in the neighbourhood of Qian⁶ and Long.⁷

They arenot an homogenous race. They are said to be the descendants of Panhu.⁸ Some are called the QingDi (Green Di), others the Bai Di (White Di), and others the Ran Di (GiantPython Di),⁹referring to the class of reptiles in which they are placed.

The peopleof the Middle Kingdom name them according to the colour of their clothes,¹⁰ but they call themselvesHezhi.¹¹

Each (oftheir tribes) has its kings and chiefs who, in most cases, received their landsand titles from the Middle Kingdom, and are required by it to fulfil theirresponsibilities, or they are demoted.

During theJianan period [CE 196-220], Angui, king of the Xingguo Di (XingKingdom Di),¹² andQianwan, king of the Baixiang Di (White Section Di),¹³ each had tribes of morethan ten thousand men.

In thesixteenth year [=CE 211 – but should read 213CE], they joined forces with Ma Chao and rebelled.¹⁴ After (Ma) Chao had beendefeated [in 214], Angui was attacked and killed by Xiahou Yuan. Qianwan madehis way to the southwest and entered Shu (Western Sichuan).¹⁵ His tribes were not ableto get away and all submitted.

The(Chinese) government transported those who had taken a questionable stanceduring these events, to a separate place in Meiyang (in the Commandery) ofFufeng.¹⁶

These arenow the two tribes of Anyi (Peaceful Yi) and Fuyi (Governed Yi).¹⁷ A Military Protectormanages the region.¹⁸

As to thosewho behaved wisely, (the Chinese Government) left them their place on theborders of Tianshui¹⁹and Nanan.²⁰ Theseare the ones who are now dependants of Guangwei Commandery.²¹

Theircustoms and language are not like those of the Middle Kingdom, but similar tothose of the Qiang²²and several Hu peoples.²³Each person has a family name, like the family names of the Middle Kingdom.They prefer blue and deep red clothes.

They arecommonly skilled at weaving cloth; they are good farmers; they breed and rearpigs, oxen, horses, donkeys, and mules.

When awoman marries, she wears arenlu²⁴ that, in the way that it is trimmed and decorated,sometimes resembles therenlu of the Qiang, and sometimes the tunic ofthe Middle Kingdom. All braid their hair.

Many ofthem know the language of the Middle Kingdom because they have lived in theMiddle Kingdom and mixed among the people. Nevertheless, when they return totheir tribes they naturally speak the Di language.

Theirmarriage (customs) resemble those of the Qiang.

These are,in fact, the people who were previously called the Western Rong,¹ and now live in Jie,²⁵ Ji,²⁶ and Huandao.²⁷

Although,at present, the fiefdoms²⁸are administered by the (Chinese) commanderies and kingdoms,²⁹ previously they hadtheir own kings and feudal princes living in (now) empty villages. They alsohad more than ten thousand (people) living in the region of Wudu,³⁰ and in the neighbourhoodof Yinping³¹ andJie.³²

Section 2 – The Zilu Tribes

The Zilu¹ originated among theXiongnu.² Zi is thename the Xiongnu used for slaves. Formerly, in the Jianwu period [CE 25-55],the Xiongnu became weak and dispersed. Their slaves fled and hid in the regionof Jincheng,³ Wuwei,⁴ and Jiuquan(Commanderies),⁵north to Hei Shui (‘Black River’) and Xi He (‘WesternRiver’).⁶

Wanderingfrom east to west, they care for their flocks by leading them in search ofwater and pasture. They make raids on the territory of Liangzhou.⁷ Their tribes haveprogressively increased until they number several tens of thousands of men.

They arenot the same as the eastern tribes, who are the Xianbi.⁸ They are not all of onerace. There are Dahu,⁹Dingling,¹⁰ andalso quite a large number of Qiang living among them. This is because they wereoriginally slaves of the Xiongnu.

During theperiod (at the end) of the Han and (the beginning) of the Wei [circa 220CE], one of their great chiefs was named Tantuo.¹¹ After he died, somegreat chiefs, descendants of his, were living to the south near the frontier ofLingju (Prefecture) in Guangwei (Commandery).¹² There was Tugui¹³ who came (to invade our territory), and rebelledseveral times. He was killed by (the Prefect of) Liangzhou. Now there is (thechief named) Shaoti.¹⁴

Sometimesthese tribes come to submit, sometimes they withdraw in hiding. They often maketrouble on the routes to the western provinces.¹⁵

Section 3 – The Qiang Tribes¹

FromDunhuang in the Western Regions²to the Chuo Qiang (‘Disobedient Qiang’)³ in the Nan Shan(‘Southern Mountains’),⁴ and several thousandli west to the Congling(the Pamirs),⁵ arethe remnants of the Yuezhi⁶and the Congzi (‘Brown Onion’),⁷ the Baima (‘White Horse’),⁸ and the Huangniu Qiang(‘Yellow Ox’ Qiang).⁹

Each ofthese peoples has its’ own chief. They are bordered to the north byvarious kingdoms. Neither the distance (from China), nor the extent (of theirterritories), is known.

It isrumoured that the Huangniu Qiang (‘Yellow Ox’ Qiang) are of aseparate race, and are born after a pregnancy of (only) six months. To thesouth, they border on the Baima Qiang (‘White Horse’ Qiang).

Section 4 – The three main overland routes to the WesternRegions

It was atthe beginning of the Han that the routes were opened leading to the kingdoms ofXiyu (‘The Western Regions’ – the countries of the TarimBasin and adjoining areas).¹

At thistime the kingdoms numbered thirty-six. Later they split into more than fifty.From the Jianwu period [CE 25-55] to our time, they have torn each other topieces, and destroyed one another, and now they number twenty.²

There werepreviously two roads, but now there are three³, which go to the Western Regions from Dunhuang andthe Yumen guan (‘Jade Gate Frontier Post’)⁴ :

[1] Heading west from the Yumen (‘Jade Gate’) FrontierPost, and passing through (the territory of) the Chuo Qiang (‘DisobedientQiang’),⁵ oneturns west to pass over the Congling (the Pamirs),⁶ and through the Xuandu(the ‘Hanging Passages’ in northern Hunza),⁷ to enter (the territoryof) the Da Yuezhi (Kushans).⁸– This is the Southern Route.⁹

[2] Heading west from the Yumen (‘Jade Gate’) FrontierPost, leaving the Dadu jing (The Protector General’s Well),¹⁰ turning around thenorthern end of the Sanlongsha (‘Three Sand Ridges’),¹⁰ one passes by the Julucang (‘Depot Dwellings’).¹² Then, on leaving the Shaxi jing(‘West-of-the-Sand Well’),¹³ and turning northwest, passing by the Longdui(‘Dragon Dunes’),¹⁴one arrives at ancient Loulan¹⁵and, turning west, goes to Qiuci (Kucha),¹⁶ and on to the Congling (Pamir) mountains. –This is the Central Route.¹⁷

[3] Heading northwest from Yumen (‘Jade Gate’) FrontierPost, passing through Hengkeng (‘East-West Gully’ = the Bēsh-toghrakValley),¹⁸ oneavoids the Sanlongsha (‘Three Sand Ridges’)¹¹ as well asthe Longdui (‘Dragon Dunes’),¹⁴ and emerges to the northof Wuchuan (‘Five Boats’)¹⁹ and arrives in the territory of Jushi at Gaochang(47 km SE of Turfan),²⁰which is the residence of theMao (Wu) andJi Colonel (incharge of the agricultural garrisons).²¹ Then it turns to the west and rejoins the CentralRoute to Qiuci (Kucha). This is the New Route.²²[Note that there is also a ‘New Route of theNorth’ outlined below in Section 10].

Previoushistorians have already described the products of the Western Territories indetail; therefore, I will now be brief.

Section 5 – The Southern Route

TheSouthern Route¹heads west to:

• the kingdom of Qiemo (Cherchen),² the kingdom of Xiaoyuan(‘Little Yuan’ – 3 marches south of Qiezhi),³ the kingdom of Jingjue(Niya),⁴ the kingdomof Loulan (north of Lop Nor),⁵which are all dependencies of Shanshan (Lop Nor and surrounds).⁶

• the kingdom of Ronglu (4 marches south of Jingjue or Niya),⁷ the kingdom of Hanmi(Keriya),⁸ thekingdom of Qule (south of Keriya),⁹ and the kingdom of Pikang (modern Pishan or Guma),¹⁰ which are alldependencies of Yutian (Khotan).¹¹

• the kingdom of Jibin (Gandhāra- Kapisha),¹² the kingdom of Daxia(Bactria),¹³ thekingdom of Gaofu (Kabul),¹⁴and the kingdom of Tianzhu (Northern India),¹⁵ which are all dependencies of the Da Yuezhi(Kushans).¹⁶

Section 6 – The Kingdom of Linni (Lumbini)

Regardingthe kingdom of Linni (Lumbini),¹the Buddhist books say:

“Theking of this country fathered Futu (the Buddha).² The Buddha was the heir apparent. His father wascalled Xietouye (Suddhodana). His mother was called Moye (Maya).

The Buddhawore yellow clothes. His hair was silky black. The hair on his chest was black;his complexion a coppery-red.³

InitiallyMoye (Maya) dreamed of a white elephant and became pregnant. When the Buddhawas born, he emerged from the left side of his mother.⁴ At his birth, he had atopknot (theushnisha) of hair.⁵ As soon as he touched ground, he was able to takeseven steps⁶.”

Thiskingdom is in the centre of the towns of Tianzhu (Northern India). Also, therewas another holy man named Shalü (Sāriputra)⁷ in Tianzhu (NorthernIndia).

Previously,in the firstYuanshou year (2BCE), during the reign of Emperor Ai of the Handynasty, the National University Student,⁸ Jing Lu, received verbal instructions from Yicun,the envoy of the king of the Da Yuezhi (Kushans),⁹ on the Buddhist sūtraswhich say this man (the Buddha) is the one who is reincarnated.¹⁰

TheBuddhists mentionlinpusai (upâsaka – a male lay disciple),¹¹sangmen (śramaṅa – monks, ascetics),¹²bowen,¹³shuwen (śrāvaka– ‘a hearer’, a follower of the Hīnayāna),¹⁴baishuwen(‘white’ or ‘pure’ or ‘elder’ śrāvaka’),¹⁵biqiu (bhiksu– an ordained monk),¹⁶chenmen (‘Guardian of the Gate’),¹⁷ which are all terms for disciples.

TheBuddha’s [teachings] are related to, but different than, the scripturesof Lao Zi of the Middle Kingdom. Indeed, it is believed (by the Taoists) thatLao Zi left the passes and, heading west, crossed the Western Regions toTianzhu (Northern India), where he taught theHu (Westerners).¹⁸

There are,altogether, twenty-nine titles for disciples of the Buddha, which I am not ableto give in detail, so I have summarised them as above.¹⁹

Section 7 – The Kingdom of Juli (or, rather, Dongli)

The kingdomof Juli (should read ‘Dongli’ = ‘Eastern Division’ ofthe Kushan Empire¹)is also called Liweite (Ayodhyā),² and Peiliwang.³

It is morethan 3,000li (1,247 km) to the southeast of Tianzhu (Northern India).⁴ This country is low,humid, and very hot.

The kingrules from the town of Shaji (or Shaqi = Sakēta).⁵ There are several tens ofother towns.

The peopleare cowardly and weak. The Yuezhi (Kushans) and Tianzhu (Northwestern India)attacked and conquered them.⁶

Thisterritory is several thousandli from east to west, and north to south.The men and women of this nation are all eighteenchi tall [mistake for8chi = 1.85 metres, or just over 6 feet, as in theHou Hanshu].⁷ They ride elephants andcamels into battle. Currently they provide military service and taxes to theYuezhi (Kushans).⁸

Section 8 – The Kingdom of Panyue (Pandya)

The kingdomof Panyue (Pandya) is also called Hanyuewang.¹ It is several thousandli to the southeastof Tianzhu (Northern India), and is in contact with Yi Circuit.² The inhabitants aresmall; they are the same height as the Chinese. Traders from Shu (WesternSichuan) travel this far.³

TheSouthern Route, after attaining its most westernmost point, turns southeastuntil it reaches its end.

Section 9 – The Central Route

The CentralRoute goes west to:

• the kingdom of Weili (near modern Korla),¹ the kingdom of Weixu(Hoxud = Chokkur),²the kingdom of Shanwang (in the western Kuruk mountains),³ which are alldependencies of Yanqi (Karashahr).⁴

• the kingdom of Gumo (south of modern Aksu),⁵ the kingdom of Wensu(Uqturpan),⁶ thekingdom of Weitou (Karaqi),⁷which are all dependencies of Qiuci (Kucha).⁸

• the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?),⁹ the kingdom of Suoju(Yarkand),¹⁰ thekingdom of Jieshi,¹¹the kingdom of Qusha,¹²the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik),¹³ the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan),¹⁴ the kingdom of Manli(modern Karasul),¹⁵the kingdom of Yire (Mazar – also known as Tágh Nák andTokanak),¹⁶ thekingdom of Yuling,¹⁷the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ – near Irkeshtam),¹⁸ the kingdom of Xiuxiu(‘Excellent Rest Stop’ – near Karakavak),¹⁹ and the kingdom of Qin,²⁰ which are alldependencies of Shule (Kashgar).²¹

Leavingthere (Kashgar), and going west, you reach Dayuan (Ferghana),²² Anxi (Parthia),²³ Tiaozhi (Characene andSusiana),²⁴ andWuyi (Arachosia and Drangiana – capital, Kandahar).²⁵ Wuyi is also calledPaizhi.²⁶ Thesefour kingdoms succeed each other to the west. These are kingdoms that existedpreviously and have not been modified.

Section 10 – Previous Misconceptions

In earliertimes, it was mistakenly thought that Tiaozhi (Characene and Susiana) was westof Da Qin (Roman territory). Now it is known to be to the east.¹

In earliertimes it was also mistakenly thought to be more powerful than Anxi (Parthia),but it has been changed into a dependency said to mark the western frontier ofAnxi (Parthia).

In earliertimes it was also mistakenly thought that the Ruo Shui (‘WeakRiver’) was west of Tiaozhi (Characene and Susiana). Now it is (thoughtto be) west of Da Qin (Roman territory).²

In earliertimes, it was also mistakenly thought that if you left Tiaozhi (Characene andSusiana), and travelled more than two hundred days to the west, you reached theplace where the sun goes down. Now, (it is thought that) you travel west fromDa Qin (Roman territory) to reach the place where the sun sets.³

Section 11 – Da Qin (Roman territory/Rome)

The kingdomof Da Qin (Rome)¹is also called Lijian.²It is west of Anxi (Parthia) and Tiaozhi (Characene and Susiana), and west ofthe Great Sea.³

From thecity of Angu (Gerrha)⁴,on the frontier of Anxi (Parthia), you take a boat and cut directly across toHaixi (‘West of the Sea’ = Egypt).⁵ With favourable windsit takes two months; if the winds are slow, perhaps a year; if there is nowind, perhaps three years.⁶

The country(that you reach) is west of the sea (haixi), which is why it is calledHaixi (literally: ‘West of the Sea’ = Egypt). There is a river (theNile) flowing out of the west of this country, and then there is another greatsea (the Mediterranean). The city of (Wu) Chisan (Alexandria)⁷ is in Haixi (Egypt).

From belowthis country you go north to reach the city of Wudan (Tanis?).⁸ You (then) headsouthwest and cross a river (the Sebannitus branch of the Nile?) by boat, whichtakes a day. You head southwest again, and again cross a river (the Canopisbranch of the Nile?) by boat, which takes another day.⁹ There are, in all,three major cities [that you come to].¹⁰

Now, if youleave the city of Angu (Gerrha) by the overland route, you go north to Haibei(‘North of the Sea’ – the lands between Babylonia andJordan), then west to Haixi (Egypt),¹¹ then turn south to go through the city of Wuchisan(Alexandria). After crossing a river, which takes a day by boat, you circlearound the coast (to the region of Apollonia, the port of Cyrene). (From there,i.e. the region of Apollonia) six days is generally enough to cross the (second)great sea (the Mediterranean) to reach that country (Da Qin = Rome).¹²

Thiscountry (the Roman Empire) has more than four hundred smaller cities and towns.It extends several thousandli in all directions.¹³ The king has hiscapital (that is, the city of Rome) close to the mouth of a river (the Tiber).¹⁴ The outer walls ofthe city are made of stone.

This regionhas pine trees, cypress, sophora, catalpa, bamboo, reeds, poplars, willows,parasol trees, and all sorts of plants.¹⁵ The people cultivate the five grains [traditionally:rice, glutinous and non-glutinous millet, wheat and beans], and they raisehorses, mules, donkeys, camels and silkworms.¹⁶ (They have) atradition of amazing conjuring. They can produce fire from their mouths, bindand then free themselves, and juggle twelve balls with extraordinary skill.¹⁷

The rulerof this country is not permanent. When disasters result from unusual phenomena,they unceremoniously replace him, installing a virtuous man as king, andrelease the old king, who does not dare show resentment.¹⁸

The commonpeople are tall and virtuous like the Chinese, but wearhu(‘Western’) clothes. They say they originally came from China, butleft it.¹⁹

They havealways wanted to communicate with China but, Anxi (Parthia), jealous of theirprofits, would not allow them to pass (through to China).²⁰

The commonpeople can write inhu (‘Western’) script.²¹ They havemulti-storeyed public buildings and private; (they fly) flags, beat drums, (andtravel in) small carriages with white roofs, and have a postal service withrelay sheds and postal stations, like in the Middle Kingdom (China).

From Anxi(Parthia) you go around Haibei (‘North of the Sea’ – thelands between Babylonia and Jordan) to reach this country.²²

The people(of these countries) are connected to each other. Every 10li (4.2 km)there is ating (relay shed or changing place), and every 30li(12.5 km) there is azhi (postal station).²³ There are no banditsor thieves, but there are fierce tigers and lions that kill those travelling onthe route. If you are not in a group, you cannot get through.²⁴

Thiscountry (Rome) has installed dozens of minor kings. The king’sadministrative capital (Rome) is more than 100li (42 km) around.²⁵ There is an officialDepartment of Archives.

The kinghas five palaces at 10li (4.2 km) intervals. He goes out at daybreak toone of the palaces and deals with matters until sunset and then spends thenight there. The next day he goes to another palace and, in five days makes acomplete tour. They have appointed thirty-six leaders who discuss eventsfrequently.²⁶ Ifone leader does not show up, there is no discussion. When the king goes out fora walk, he always orders a man to follow him holding a leather bag. Anyone whohas something to say throws his or her petition into the bag. When he returnsto the palace, he examines them and determines which are reasonable.²⁷

They useglass to make the pillars and table utensils in the palaces.²⁸ They manufacture bowsand arrows.

They dividethe various branch principalities of their territory into small countries suchas that of the king of Zesan (Azania?),²⁹ the king of Lüfen (Leucos Limen),³⁰ the king of Qielan(Wadi Sirhan),³¹the king of Xiandu (Leukê Komê),³² the king of Sifu (Petra),³³ (and that of) theking of Yuluo (Karak).³⁴There are so many other small kingdoms it is impossible to give details on eachone.

Section 12 – Products of Da Qin (Roman territory)

Thiscountry produces fine linen.¹They make gold and silver coins. One gold coin is equal to ten silver coins.²

They havefine brocaded cloth that is said to be made from the down of‘water-sheep’. It is called Haixi (‘Egyptian’) cloth.This country produces the six domestic animals, which are all said to come fromthe water.³

It is saidthat they not only use sheep’s wool, but also bark from trees, or the silkfrom wild cocoons,⁴to make brocade, mats, pile rugs, woven cloth and curtains, all of them of goodquality, and with brighter colours than those made in the countries of Haidong(“East of the Sea”).⁵

Furthermore,they regularly make a profit by obtaining Chinese silk, unravelling it, andmaking finehu (‘Western’) silk damasks.⁶ That is why thiscountry trades with Anxi (Parthia) across the middle of the sea. The seawateris bitter and unable to be drunk, which is why it is rare for those who try tomake contact to reach China.

Themountains (of this country) produce nine-coloured jewels (fluorite) of inferiorquality. They change colour on different occasions from blue-green to red,yellow, white, black, green, purple, fiery red, and dark blue.⁷ Nowadays nine-colouredstones of the same type are found in the Yiwu Shan (a mountain range east ofHami).⁸

In thethirdYangjia year (CE 134), the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chen Pan [whohad been made a hostage at the court of the Kushan emperor, for some periodbetween 114 and 120, and was later placed on the throne of Kashgar by theKushans],⁹offered a blue (or green) gem and a golden girdle from Haixi (Egypt).¹⁰

Moreover,theXiyu Jiutu (‘Ancient Sketch of the Western Regions’)now says that both Jibin (Kapisha-Gandhāra) and Tiaozhi (Characene andSusiana) produce precious stones approaching the quality of jade.¹¹

Product List¹²

Note: The translator has added the numbering in brackets for theconvenience of the reader in checking the notes on the various items. Forinformation on any of the items mentioned in the list, please click on the bluesuperscript No. 12 after “Product List” above, and then scroll downthe page of notes until you come to the number you are looking for. Forinstance, if you want to check the notes on tin, scroll down until you reachnote number 12.12 (6).

Da Qin (theRoman Empire) has plenty of:

(1) gold

(2) silver

(3) copper

(4) iron

(5) lead

(6) tin

(7)‘divine tortoises’ – tortoises used for divination

(8) whitehorses with red manes

(9)fighting cocks

(10)rhinoceroses

(11) seaturtle shell

(12) blackbears

(13)‘red hornless (or immature) dragons’ (which produced the famous“dragons’ blood” resin)

(14)‘poison-avoiding rats’ = mongooses

(15) largecowries

(16)mother-of-pearl

(17)carnelian

(18)‘southern gold’

(19)kingfisher feathers

(20) ivory

(21)coloured veined jade

(22)‘bright moon’ pearls

(23)luminescent ‘pearls’ or pearl-like jewels (probably large diamonds)

(24)genuine white pearls

(25) yellowamber

(26) (red)coral

(27) tenvarieties of glass: red, white, black, green, yellow, blue-green, dark blue,light blue, fiery red, purple

(28) amagnificent jade

(29) whitecarnelian?

(30) rockcrystal or transparent glass

(31)various semi-precious gems

(32)realgar

(33)orpiment

(34)nephrite

(35) multicolouredjade or gemstone

(36) tensorts of wool rugs: yellow, white, black, green, purple, fiery red, deep red,dark blue, golden yellow, light blue and back to yellow

(37) finelypatterned multicoloured wool carpets

(38) ninecolours of multicoloured lower quality wool carpets (kilims rather than knottedcarpets?)

(39) goldthreaded embroidery

(40)polychrome (warp twill) fine silk or chiffon

(41) wovengold cloth

(42) purplechi cloth

(43)falucloth

(44) purplechiqu cloth

(45)asbestos cloth

(46) finesilk gauze cloth

(47) shotsilk, ‘clinging cloth’ or ‘cloth with swirlingpatterns’?

(48)dudaicloth

(49)cotton-wool cloth?

(50)multicolouredtao cloth

(51)crimson curtains woven with gold

(52)multicoloured ‘spiral curtains’?

(53)yiwei

(54) myrrh

(55) storax

(56)diti

(57)rosemary

(58)probablydhūṇa– an incense made from the resin of the Indian Sal tree.

(59)baifuzi – lit. ‘white aconite’ – but it is not clearwhat plant this refers to here. See notes.

(60)frankincense

(61)turmeric, saffron or tulips

(62) rueoil

(63)Oriental lovage –Lysimachia foenum-graecum Hance

Altogether(they have) twelve types of aromatic plants.¹³

Section 13 – The Sea Route to Da Qin (Roman territory)

As well asthe overland route from Da Qin (Roman territory) through Haibei (‘Northof the Sea’ – the lands between Egypt and Parthia), one can alsofollow the sea south along the seven commanderies of Jiaozhi (stretching downthe north Vietnamese coast),¹which are in contact with foreign countries.² Nearby (or ‘North’)³ is a waterway (the Red River)⁴ which leads toYongchang⁵ inYizhou (a commandery in present-day southern Yunnan).⁶ That’s why rareitems come from Yongchang.

In earlytimes only the maritime routes (to Da Qin) were discussed because theydidn’t know there were overland routes.⁷

Section 14 – Roman Dependencies

Now, (theRoman Empire) can be summed up as follows: the number of people and familiescannot be given in detail. It is the biggest country west of the Bai Congling(‘White Pamir Mountains’).¹ They have installed numerous minor kings so onlythe bigger dependencies are noted here:

Section 15 – The Kingdom of Zesan (Azania)

The king ofZesan (Azania)¹is subject to Da Qin (Rome). His seat of government is in the middle of thesea.² To thenorth you reach Lüfen (Leukê Komê).³ It can take half a yearto cross the water, but with fast winds it takes a month.⁴

(Zesan) isin close communication with Angu city (Gerrha) in Anxi (Parthia).⁵ You can (also) travel(from Zesan) southwest to the capital of Da Qin (Rome), but the number ofliis not known.⁶

Section 16 – The Kingdom of Lüfen = Leukê Komêor modern Al Wajh

The king ofLüfen (Leukê Komê)¹ is subject to Da Qin (Rome). It is 2,000li(832 km) from his residence to (the nearest) major city (= Daphnae) of Da Qin(the Roman Empire).²

From thecity of Lüfen (Leukê Komê) going west to Da Qin (alongside theButic Canal), you cross over the sea by an ‘elevated bridge’ 230li(96 km) long;³then you take the sea route southwest, travelling around the sea (coast), andthen head west (to reach Da Qin).⁴

Section 17 – The Kingdom of Qielan (Wadi Sirhan)

The king ofQielan (Wadi Sirhan)¹is subject to Da Qin (Rome). From the kingdom of Sitao (Istakhr, Stakhr)² you go south, cross ariver (the Rūd-i Kor), then head west 3,000li (1,247 km) to go toQielan (Wadi Sirhan).³The route leaves south of the river (the Rūd-i Kor), only then do you headwest.⁴

From Qielan(Wadi Sirhan) you again travel west 600li (250 km) to the kingdom ofSifu (Petra).⁵The Southern Route joins (this east-west route) at Sifu (Petra). Also, (aroute) goes southwest to the kingdom of Xiandu (‘Aynūnah).⁶

Due south fromQielan (Wadi Sirhan) and Sifu (Petra) is Jishi (‘Rock Piles’).⁷ To the south of Jishi(‘Rock Piles’) there is a big sea (the Red Sea) which producescoral and pearls.⁸

North ofQielan (Wadi Sirhan), Sifu (Petra), Sibin (Susa)⁹ and Aman (Ariana)¹⁰ there is a mountainrange (the Taurus mountains)¹¹ running east to west.

East ofboth Da Qin (Roman territories) and Haixi (= Egypt)¹¹ there is a mountainrange (the Jibāl ash Sharāh Range or Mount Seir)¹² running north tosouth.

Section 18 – The Kingdom of Xiandu (‘Aynūnah = LeukosLimên)

The king ofXiandu (‘Aynūnah = Leukos Limên)¹ is subject to Da Qin(Rome). From his residence it is 600li (250 km) northeast to Sifu(Petra).²

Section 19 – The Kingdom of Sifu (Petra)

The king ofSifu (Petra)¹ is subjectto Da Qin (Rome). From his residence northeast to Yuluo (Karak),² you go 340li(141 km), and cross over a sea (mistake for ‘river’ = the Wadi al-Ḥesa).³

Section 20 – The Kingdom of Yuluo (Karak)

Yuluo(Karak)¹ issubject to of Da Qin (Rome). The seat of government is northeast of Sifu(Petra) across a river (the Wadi al-Ḥesa).² From Yuluo (Karak) you go northeast, and againcross over a river (River Arnon).³

Section 21 – The Kingdom of Siluo (Sura)

Northeastof Siluo (Sura)¹you again cross over a river (the Euphrates). The kingdom of Siluo (Sura) issubject to Anxi (Parthia), and it borders on Da Qin (Roman territory).

Section 22 – The Far West

West of DaQin (Rome) is sea water. West of the sea water are rivers. West of the riversthere are big mountains running south to north.¹ West (of this) is theChi Shui (‘Red River’ = Kāshgar-daryā?).² West of the Chi Shui(‘Red River’ = Kāshgar-daryā?) are the Baiyu shan(‘White Jade Mountains’).³

In theBaiyu Shan (‘White Jade Mountains’) lives Xi Wangmu(‘Spirit-Mother of the West’).⁴ West of Xi Wangmu are the long Liusha(‘Shifting Sands’).⁵

To the westof the Liusha (‘Shifting Sands’) is the kingdom of Daxia (Bactria),the kingdom of Jiansha (‘Stable Sands’),⁶ the kingdom of Shuyao(Sogdiana),<⁷ andthe kingdom of the Yuezhi (Kushans).

West ofthese four kingdoms is the Hei Shui (‘Black River’),⁸ which is as far west asI have heard of.

Section 23 – The New Route of the North

The NewRoute of the North¹goes west reaching the kingdom of Eastern Jumi (near modern Dashito),² the kingdom of WesternJumi (near modern Mulei),²the kingdom of Danhuan,⁴the kingdom of Bilu,⁵the kingdom of Pulu,⁶and the kingdom of Wutan,⁷which are all dependencies of the king of the Further Jushi Section (nearJimasa).

The kinghas his capital in the city of Yulai.⁸ The Wei (dynasty) conferred the title of‘Probationary Wei Palace Attendant’⁹ on Yiduoza, the king,with the honorific name of ‘Great Defender of the Wei’.¹⁰ He received the‘Seal of King (appointed by the) Wei’.¹¹

The (NewNorthern) Route then turns northwest to reach Wusun (Issyk-kol andSemirechiye),¹²and Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins).¹³ These kingdomsexisted previously and have neither grown nor shrunk.¹⁴

Section 24 – The Kingdom of Northern Wuyi (Khujand –Alexandria Escharte)

NorthernWuyi (modern Khujand)¹is a distinct kingdom in the northern part of Kangju.

Section 25 – The Kingdom of Liu (Turkestan? Kzyl-Orda?), Yan(north of Yancai), and Yancai (= the Alans between the Black and Caspian Seas).

Then thereis the kingdom of Liu (between Kangju and Yancai?),¹ the kingdom of Yan (tothe north of Yancai),²and the kingdom of Yancai (between the Black and Caspian Seas),³ which is also calledAlan.⁴ They allhave the same way of life as those of Kangju.

To thewest, they border Da Qin (Roman territory), to the southeast they border Kangju(Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins).

Thesekingdoms have large numbers of their famous sables.⁵ They raise cattle andmove about in search of water and fodder. They are close to a big marsh (to thenortheast and north of the Aral Sea).⁶ Previously they were vassals of Kangju (Tashkentplus the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins). Now they are no longervassals.⁷

Section 26 – The Kingdom of Hude

The kingdomof Hude is north of the Congling (the Pamirs), northwest of Wusun (Issyk-koland Semirechiye), northeast of Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middleJaxartes basins). They have more than 10,000 men able to bear arms. They followtheir cattle. They produce excellent horses, and have sables.

Section 27 – The Kingdom of Jiankun (Kirghiz)

The kingdomof Jiankun (Kirghiz)¹is northwest of Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins).They have more than 30,000 men able to bear arms. They follow their cattle andhave lots of sables and excellent horses.

Section 28 – The Kingdom of Dingling (Around Lake Baikal and onthe Irtish River)

The kingdomof Dingling is north of Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middleJaxartes basins).¹They have 60,000 men able to bear arms. They produce famous sable pelts,² as well as white andblue Arctic fox pelts.³

Of thesethree states Jiangun (the Kirghiz – in the region of Omsk?), is thecentral one. It is 7,000li (2,911 km) from the court of the Chanyu(Shah)⁴ of theXiongnu (which was close to modern Ulan Bator) on the Anxi River (Juul Gol?).

It is 5,000li (2,080 km)⁵south to the six kingdoms of Jushi;⁶ 3,000li (1,247 km) southwest to go to thefrontier of Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins);8,000li (3,326 km) west to go to the capital of the king of Kangju.

It wasthought that perhaps these Dingling were the Dingling to the north of theXiongnu (around Lake Baikal), but the Northern Dingling are west of Wusun (andnorth of Kangju), and it seems they are of another race. Furthermore, north ofthe Xiongnu (near modern Ulan Bator) is the kingdom of Hunyu, the kingdom ofQushi, the kingdom of Dingling, the kingdom of the Gekun, and the kingdom ofthe Xinli.⁷

It is knownthat if you go south from Bei Hai (‘Northern Sea’ = Lake Baikal)you find the Dingling again. They are not the same as the Dingling to the westof the Wusun (Issyk-kol and Semirechiye).⁸

The Wusunelders say that north of the Dingling is the kingdom of Majing (‘HorsesShanks’). These men make sounds like startled wild geese. From above theknee, they have the body and hands of a man, but below the knees, they growhair, and have horses’ legs and hooves. They don’t ride horses asthey can run faster than horses. They are brave, strong, and daring fighters.⁹

Section 29 – The Kingdom of Duanren (‘Short Men’)

The kingdomof Duanren (‘Short Men’)¹ is northwest of Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu,Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins). The men and women are all threechitall [0.693 metres or 2.27 feet]. They are very numerous.

It is along way from Yancai (at the mouth of the Syr Darya near the Aral Sea) and theother kingdoms. The elders of Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and middleJaxartes basins) say that merchants frequently cross this kingdom.² It is possibly morethan 10,000li (4,158 km) from Kangju (Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, andmiddle Jaxartes basins).

Section 30 – Yu Huan’s Comments

Yu Huan(the author) observes: It is commonly believed that a fish living in a littlestream does not know the size of the Qiang (Yangtze River) and the sea.¹ The mayfly,² for that matter, doesnot know of the changing of the four seasons. Why is this so? Because one livesin a small place, and the other’s life is short.

I am, atthe moment, intensively examining Da Qin (the Roman Empire) and all the otherforeign kingdoms. Still, it seems to me that I am neglecting to (fully)instruct the uninformed.

Moreover,as to the speculations of Zou Yan,³ or the hypotheses of theDayitai xuan,“The Great Mystery of the Noble Yi (-jing)”,⁴ alas, I am limited totravelling by foot, and living in the puddle left in the hoof print of an ox.⁵ Besides, I don’thave the longevity of Peng Zu.⁶

It has notbeen my fate to see things first hand, travelling with the rapid winds, orenlisting swift horses to view distant vistas. Alas, I have to strain to seethe three heavenly bodies [the sun, moon, and stars] but, oh, how my thoughtsfly to the eight foreign regions!⁷